Trade and Employment From Myths to Facts - International Labour ...

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Contents 4.3.1 The informal economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 4.3.2 Trade and the informal economy: Theory and concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 4.4 Approaches to assess the impact of trade on the informal economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 4.4.1 Qualitative approaches (micro-level studies) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 4.4.2 Empirical quantitative studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 4.4.3 Computable general equilibrium (CGE) models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 4.5 Policy recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 4.6 Conclusions and the way forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 5. Gender Aspects of Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Günseli Berik 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 5.2 Assessing gender impacts of trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 5.2.1 Gender inequalities precede trade reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 5.2.2 Methodological considerations: indentifying the gender impacts of trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 5.3 The gender impacts of trade on employment and wages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 5.3.1 Theoretical Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 5.3.2 Empirical evidence: Global feminization of employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 5.3.3 Empirical evidence: Wage levels, wage growth and gender wage gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 5.3.4 Empirical analyses of trade impacts on gender wage gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 5.4 Trade liberalization in agriculture: Women farmers and agricultural workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 5.5 Intra-household effects of trade liberalization: Time and resource allocation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 5.5.1 Time allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 5.5.2 Resource allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 5.6 Conclusions and policy implications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 5.6.1 Main findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 5.6.2 Policy recommendations: promoting genderequitable job creation and economic security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 ix
Trade and Employment: From Myths to Facts 6. Trade Adjustment Costs and Assistance: The Labour Market Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Joseph Francois, Marion Jansen, and Ralf Peters 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 6.2 Defining adjustment costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 6.3 Adjustment costs: measurement and determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 6.3.1 Factors determining adjustment costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 6.3.2 Measuring adjustment costs: Ex-post analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 6.3.3 Measuring adjustment costs: CGE models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 6.4 Adjustment assistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 6.4.1 Definition of trade adjustment assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 6.4.2 Reasons for adjustment assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 6.4.3 Labour market policies to facilitate adjustment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 6.4.4 Specific trade adjustment assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 6.4.5 Trade policies addressing adjustment costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 6.4.6 Other domestic policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 6.5 Conclusions and Policy Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 7. Trade Diversification: Drivers and Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Olivier Cadot, Céline Carrère and Vanessa Strauss-Kahn 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 7.2 Measuring diversification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 7.2.1 Concentration/Diversification indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 7.2.2 Trade-expansion margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 7.2.3 Alternative margins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 7.3 What do we learn from these measures? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 7.3.1 Trends in diversification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 7.3.2 Which margin matters? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 7.4 Drivers of diversification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 7.4.1 Quantitative insights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 7.4.2 Trade liberalization as a driver of diversification . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 7.4.3 Diversification, spillovers and industrial policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 7.5 Export diversification, growth and employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 7.5.1 Diversification and productivity: An issue of causality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 x
Page 1 and 2: Trade and Employment From Myths to
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Page 5 and 6: PREFACE Trade negotiations -bilater
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Page 11 and 12: EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS EDITORS Ma
Page 13 and 14: ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The editors wish t
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Page 35 and 36: NEW EVIDENCE ON TRADE AND EMPLOYMEN
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Chapter 2: New evidence on trade an
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20 See Harrison and Rodriguez-Clare
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ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF TRADE ON EM
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APPPENDIX 3.A: TABLES Chapter 3: As
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TRADE AND THE INFORMAL ECONOMY 4.1
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Chapter 4: Trade and the informal e
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GENDER ASPECTS OF TRADE 5.1 INTRODU
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and income-earning opportunities ge
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Figure 5.1: Description of gender i
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A third view is that the type of jo
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REFERENCES Chapter 5: Gender aspect
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