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Guatemala contemplated in this preliminary phase of the project, it became apparent that a number of agricultural scientists in Central America, Mexico and the Caribbean have adequate laboratory facilities to conduct such work. These scientists are becoming increasingly reluctant to act simply as “guides” or “providers” of biological samples to foreign scientists from advanced research laboratories that often visit developing countries in search of interesting scientific materials. Although the aim of this project was to conduct research in a truly collaborative manner, in which national scientists have preferential access to the results of all research undertaken, the possibility of training national scientists in advanced molecular techniques became a need. The two research areas in which advanced techniques are being implemented in this project are in the molecular identification of whitefly biotypes and of the begomoviruses they transmit. In Guatemala, the identification of begomoviruses is being done at the University of San Carlos with the support of the Plant Pathology Laboratory of the University of Wisconsin. The molecular characterization of B. tabaci biotypes is being carried out at the University of El Valle, Guatemala City, which has adequate facilities to conduct research in the area of molecular biology but did not have the technology to identify whitefly biotypes. Consequently, a research assistant from the relevant laboratory received 1 week of intensive training at CIAT on the molecular characterization of B. tabaci biotypes and was able to carry out this work successfully upon return to Guatemala. Thus, the project helped national scientists to conduct surveys that improved both the biological and socio- economic knowledge base on which research and implementation of agricultural policy are founded. The research sector of Guatemala was also strengthened through the training of scientists from advanced research laboratories in the country in techniques used for the identification of whitefly biotypes and the begomoviruses that affect food and export crops of social and economic importance. Current Status of Whitefly/Begomovirus Problems The whitefly/begomovirus problems in Guatemala are concentrated in the south-eastern agricultural regions of the country (Figure 1). This region contains most of the country’s midaltitude valleys (at 500 to 1000 m altitude) with an average annual rainfall below 1500 mm, and temperatures between 20 and 25 ºC; these valleys are also characterized by highly diverse cropping systems, including irrigation. All of these factors favour the reproduction of B. tabaci. Moreover, the concentration of nontraditional export crops in this region is associated with the intensive use of pesticides, regularly used to protect these high-value crops. Pesticide abuse is another predisposing factor for the establishment of B. tabaci as a pest. Any crop planted in the Pacific lowlands will be severely attacked by whitefly-transmitted begomoviruses particularly because of the higher temperatures, which increase disease severity. The current begomovirus situation is becoming more complex as new whitefly-transmitted viruses are introduced from neighbouring countries, or evolve from the indigenous virus population, or arise 195
through genetic recombination between the existing begomoviruses that affect the diverse crops such as common bean, tomato, pepper, squash (Cucurbita spp. L.), melon and tobacco that are grown in this area. Only in the case of common bean has there been a sustained effort on the part of the national program and CIAT (with Swiss funding) to develop and release virusresistant cultivars. For the remaining crops, the emphasis has been on chemical control, although large agroexport companies have adopted some IPM packages. South-eastern Guatemala provides an ideal site to conduct a case study with small-scale farmers on the implementation of practical IPM measures to combat B. tabaci and the begomoviruses that this species transmits to food and industrial crops in this region. 196 Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the following technical staff of ICTA who assisted in the research: Carlos Paiz García, Edgardo Carrillo, Edin Palma, Iván Esquivel, Viany Gillespie, José Luis Ordóñez and T. Mairor R. Osorio. The work was supported by a grant from the Danish Agency for Development Assistance (DANIDA), via the TWF-IPM Project. References Cancino, M.; Abouzid, A. M.; Morales, F. J.; Purcifull, D. E.; Polston, J. E.; Hiebert, E. 1995. Generation and characterization of three monoclonal antibodies useful in detecting and distinguishing Bean golden mosaic virus isolates. Phytopathology 85:484-490. Whiteflies and Whitefly-borne Viruses in the Tropics Dardón, D. E. 1992. Las moscas blancas en Guatemala. In: Hilje, L.; Arboleda, O. (eds.). Las moscas blancas en América Central y el Caribe. Memorias del Taller Centroamericano y del Caribe sobre moscas blancas, Turrialba, CR. p. 38-41. Faria, J. C.; Gilbertson, R. L.; Hanson, S. F.; Morales, F. J.; Ahlquist, P.; Loniello, A. O.; Maxwell, D. P. 1994. Bean golden mosaic geminivirus type II isolates from the Dominican Republic and Guatemala: Nucleotide sequences, infectious pseudorecombinants, and phylogenetic relationships. Phytopathology 84:321-329. Gaytán, M. A. 1979. Proyecto de exportación de melones en el Valle de Zacapa. XXV Reunión annual Programa Cooperativo Centroamericano para el Mejoramiento de Cultivos Alimenticios (PCCMCA), Tegucigalpa, HN. Gill, A. 1994. Problemática del complejo mosca blanca-virus en algodón en Centroamérica. In: Mata, M.; Dardón, D. E.; Salguero, V. E. (eds.). Biología y manejo del complejo mosca blancavirosis. Memorias III Taller Centroamericano y del Caribe sobre mosca blanca, Antigua, GM. p. 23-38. Morales, F. J. 1994. Bean golden mosaic: Research advances. Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Cali, CO. 193 p. Rodríguez, R. 1994. Situación actual del mosaico dorado del frijol en Guatemala. In: Morales, F. J. (ed.). Bean golden mosaic. 1994 research advances. Programa Cooperativo Regional de Frijol para Centro América, México y el Caribe (PROFRIJOL)-Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC). Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Cali, CO. p. 34-39. West, R. C.; Augelli, J. P. 1977. Middle America: Its lands and peoples. Second edition. Prentice-Hall, NJ, USA. 494 p.
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About the Partners CIAT The Interna
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Centro Internacional de Agricultura
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Chapter 4 Whiteflies and Whitefly-b
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Chapter 6 Whiteflies and Whitefly-b
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Contents Page Foreword vii Introduc
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Contents Chapter SECTION THREE Whit
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Foreword This book is the product o
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Introduction Introduction The Probl
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Introduction In addition to the yie
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Introduction in pesticide use in La
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Introduction annual crops, especial
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Introduction Plant Resistance contr
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Introduction Otim-Nape, G. W.; Bua,
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SECTION ONE Whiteflies as Vectors o
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Introduction CHAPTER 1.1 Introducti
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Introduction diseases than is cassa
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Introduction Sub-project on Whitefl
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Introduction References Aritua, V.;
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Introduction Thresh, J. M.; Otim-Na
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Ghana 1997, on 80 farms. These incl
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Ghana (6.2%), Bakentenma (5%) and K
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Ghana Legg, J. P.; James, B. D. 199
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Benin Northern guinea savannah Sout
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Benin or disease problem, the main
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Nigeria CHAPTER 1.4 Nigeria Introdu
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Nigeria TMS 30572 (18.8%) and TMS 3
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Nigeria FAO (Food and Agriculture O
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Cameroon protocol, to enable valid
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Cameroon Farmers undertook various
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Cameroon Robertson, I. A. D. 1987.
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Uganda between November 1997 and Ja
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Uganda environment, host plant heal
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Uganda local varieties. Assessments
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Uganda Harrison, B. D. 1987. Proper
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Kenya Recent epidemiological studie
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Kenya respective diseases were reco
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Kenya Bock, K. R. 1983. Epidemiolog
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Tanzania CHAPTER 1.8 Tanzania Intro
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Tanzania Adult whiteflies were more
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Tanzania loss) to assess yield loss
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Tanzania Legg, J. P.; Raya, M. 1998
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Malawi Increased Biological Underst
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Malawi Physiology and Ecology in th
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Madagascar Tanzania Madagascar Moza
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Madagascar surprising, particularly
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Diversity of African Cassava Mosaic
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Sweetpotato Virus Disease in East A
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Factors Associated with Damage CHAP
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Factors Associated with Damage Mean
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Factors Associated with Damage % SP
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Factors Associated with Damage thro
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Factors Associated with Damage Gedd
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Conclusions and Recommendations col
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Conclusions and Recommendations Mal
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Conclusions and Recommendations Mpi
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Conclusions and Recommendations com
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Conclusions and Recommendations con
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Conclusions and Recommendations (2)
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Conclusions and Recommendations Ger
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SECTION TWO Whiteflies as Pests and
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Introduction Czosnek, H.; Navot, N.
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Sudan cotton, leading to the introd
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Sudan Table 1. Reproductive host pl
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Sudan Historically, Sudan has been
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Sudan Only 10% of producers reporte
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Sudan Conclusions The work conducte
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Kenya CHAPTER 2.3 Kenya Introductio
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Kenya Increased Biological Understa
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Kenya Samples of 10 plants per fiel
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Kenya Table 4. Maximum incidence (%
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Kenya Seventy-nine percent of tomat
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Kenya under Phase 2 of the TWF-IPM
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Tanzania CHAPTER 2.4 Tanzania Intro
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Tanzania The reproductive host plan
Page 160 and 161: Tanzania Geographical range of whit
Page 162 and 163: Tanzania Local names given to white
Page 164 and 165: Tanzania Nono-Womdim, R.; Swai, I.
Page 166 and 167: Malawi levels of infestation by the
Page 168 and 169: Malawi Table 3. Maximum incidence (
Page 170 and 171: Malawi (40%) believe that the white
Page 172 and 173: Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus in E.
Page 178 and 179: Conclusions and Recommendations CHA
Page 180 and 181: Conclusions and Recommendations (Fi
Page 182 and 183: Conclusions and Recommendations Cen
Page 184 and 185: Conclusions and Recommendations the
Page 186 and 187: SECTION THREE Whiteflies as Vectors
Page 188 and 189: Introduction CHAPTER 3.1 Introducti
Page 190 and 191: Introduction especially for export.
Page 192 and 193: Mexico CHAPTER 3.2 Mexico Introduct
Page 194 and 195: Mexico Culiacán, Sinaloa, in north
Page 196 and 197: Mexico Table 2. Virus survey of tom
Page 198 and 199: Mexico results of the molecular bio
Page 200 and 201: Mexico Strengthened Research Capaci
Page 202 and 203: Mexico López, R. 1996. Experiencia
Page 204 and 205: Guatemala 1960s, and at this time t
Page 206 and 207: Guatemala Table 2. Results of white
Page 208 and 209: Guatemala Table 5. Cropping systems
Page 212 and 213: El Salvador CHAPTER 3.4 El Salvador
Page 214 and 215: El Salvador During the course of th
Page 216 and 217: El Salvador markets: common bean, m
Page 218 and 219: El Salvador Current Status of White
Page 220 and 221: Honduras Copan Ocotepeque Santa Bá
Page 222 and 223: Honduras Table 3. Biotyping of whit
Page 224 and 225: Honduras References Caballero, R. 1
Page 226 and 227: Nicaragua Nueva Segovia Madriz Este
Page 228 and 229: Nicaragua Lowlands of Nicaragua. Th
Page 230 and 231: Nicaragua Region VI is a main horti
Page 232 and 233: Costa Rica CHAPTER 3.7 Costa Rica I
Page 234 and 235: Costa Rica Table 1. Characterizatio
Page 236 and 237: Costa Rica Castillo, J. 1997. Movim
Page 238 and 239: Panama Bocas del Toro Chiriquí Ver
Page 240 and 241: Panama Gámez, R. 1970. Los virus d
Page 242 and 243: Haiti Grande-Anse Sud Grande-Anse S
Page 244 and 245: Haiti collaborators in this project
Page 246 and 247: Cuba Ciudad de la Habana Pinar del
Page 248 and 249: Cuba Table 3. Comparative homologie
Page 250 and 251: Cuba project provided three keynote
Page 252 and 253: Dominican Republic CHAPTER 3.11 Dom
Page 254 and 255: Dominican Republic monoclonal antib
Page 256 and 257: Dominican Republic Strengthened Res
Page 258 and 259: Reproductive Crop Hosts of Bemisia
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Reproductive Crop Hosts of Bemisia
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Biotypes of Bemisia tabaci CHAPTER
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Biotypes of Bemisia tabaci For this
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Biotypes of Bemisia tabaci 100 99 B
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Biotypes of Bemisia tabaci biotype
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Biotypes of Bemisia tabaci Table 2.
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Biotypes of Bemisia tabaci Already
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Conclusions and Recommendations CHA
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Conclusions and Recommendations gre
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SECTION FOUR Whiteflies as Pests of
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Introduction control, due to resist
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Introduction Posada, L. 1976. Lista
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Colombia and Ecuador B biotype B. t
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Colombia and Ecuador assistants and
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Colombia and Ecuador and squash. On
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Colombia and Ecuador Table 2. Main
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Colombia and Ecuador Table 6. Patte
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Insecticide Resistance in Colombia
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Conclusions and Recommendations CHA
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Conclusions and Recommendations res
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Conclusions and Recommendations rot
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SECTION FIVE Special Topics on Pest
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Sustainable IPM through Host Plant
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Biological Control of Whiteflies by
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Progress of Cassava Mosaic Disease
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Management of the Cassava Mosaic Di
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Conclusions Conclusions The Tropica
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Conclusions whitefly pests and thus
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Conclusions developing countries, a
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Acronyms and Abbreviations Acronyms
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Acronyms and Abbreviations FIRA Fid
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Acronyms and Abbreviations PROFRIJO
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Acronyms and Abbreviations PYR pyre
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