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Table 5.17 Model #2 coefficients and significance of independent variables Independent Variable B* Std. Error t P-value (Constant) 19.95 4.61 4.323 .000 Property was built before 1995 10.84 2.29 4.736 .000 Property is a senior citizen/retirement community -6.70 2.56 -2.618 .009 Property has a play area 6.80 1.94 3.513 .000 Property has a cooling tower 11.55 3.31 3.493 .001 Property is a rental † 6.84 1.74 3.926 .000 Property is billed through RUBS method 0.39 1.98 0.197 .844 Property is submetered -7.96 2.47 -3.225 .001 Average commodity charge for water/wastewater ‡ -2.01 .28 -7.072 .000 Average number of bedrooms per unit ‡ 17.44 1.54 11.313 .000 Dependent Variable: Indoor water use per unit (average 2001, 2002) * Represents the magnitude of each independent variable in kgal per year per dwelling unit. † Rentals include private and government subsidized rentals. (Non-rentals include condominiums, private resident owned, and other). ‡ Continuous variables, change is seen for every dollar or bedroom added. Besides submetering, seven other independent variables in the model were also statistically significant. Properties built before 1995 used 10.8 kgal per unit more than properties built after 1995 – this is presumably largely the result of the high efficient plumbing fixtures (toilets, showerheads, and faucet aerators) mandated for new construction by the 1992 Energy Policy Act (EPACT). The average number of bedrooms per unit is a reasonable surrogate for the number of people living in each dwelling unit. These models suggest that for every additional bedroom water use is increased by an average of about 17.4 kgal per unit. Rental properties used 6.8 kgal per unit more than non-rental properties (condominiums, private resident owned, and other). Properties classified as senior citizen or retirement communities used 6.7 kgal per unit less than standard mixed-age multi-family properties. Properties that reported having a play area used 6.8 kgal per unit more than properties without that amenity. The presence of a cooling tower increased per unit water use 11.6 kgal per unit. For every dollar more that a utility charged per thousand gallons of water and wastewater, a property’s water use would decrease by 2.0 kgal per unit per year. It should be noted that all of the beta coefficients in Table 5.17 are additive and provide a method to estimate annual water usage for a given property. The generic equation for Model #2 follows the same logic as was outlined in the section on Model #1. For example, if there is a property that was built after 1995, has a play area, is a rental, is not individually billed for water 162
(in-rent), has an average commodity charge of $5 per kgal, and has 1 bedroom, the following equation could be used: 19 .95 + 6.80 + 6.84 + 5*( −2.01) + 1*(17.44) = 40.98 From the Model #2 equation, the annual water use could be estimated for the property as 40.98 kgal per unit per year. Model #3 –Nine Independent Variables Including Cost of Rent The third multivariate regression model presented has slightly more predictive power than the other models presented, but also represents a smaller sample of properties because it includes a cost of rent variable. Inclusion of a cost of rent variable, by definition, excludes properties that are non-rentals (condominiums, private resident owned, and other) as well as those that did not respond to the question. Excluding these properties makes this model less representative of the population of multi-family housing found in the US, which includes a mix of ownership arrangements. Model #3 includes nine independent variables identified as significant from the ANOVA presented earlier in this chapter including: ! Average number of bedrooms per unit ! Year the property was built (1994 and earlier or 1995 and later) ! Average rent per bedroom ! Utility’s average commodity charge for water and wastewater ! Presence of a play area ! Presence of a cooling tower ! Classification as senior citizen/retirement community ! RUBS ! Submetering These factors were selected because of their established significance in determining water use and through an iterative stepwise regression process the statistical program evaluated the impact of different variables and selected those that provided the best fit. Researchers then modified the stepwise model to increase the sample size and include several other factors known to be significant predictors of water use. In view of the sample size, model selection effects were not deemed to be sufficiently important to be taken into account. Fundamental information and statistics from the regression model are presented in Table 5.18. The adjusted coefficient of determination (R 2 ) for Model #3 is 0.260. This indicates that the model explains about 26 percent of the variability in the data. The P-value for the model is 163
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NATIONAL MULTIPLE FAMILY SUBMETERIN
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CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES............
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Matched-Pair Analysis .............
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LIST OF TABLES Table ES.1.1 Breakdo
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Table 6.6 Elasticity values, analys
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Figure 4.30 RUBS water bill #6 ....
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investigated local water savings as
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We are grateful to the members of a
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quantitative aspects of separate bi
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3. Owner/postcard survey: To identi
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"averages" of impact property water
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in-rent properties, others used the
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of these models included the billin
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70 Average Annual Water Use Per Uni
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COSTS AND BENEFITS Beyond quantifyi
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service charge, then the resident w
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Billing Method Efficient Fixtures?
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70 Avg. Water Use per MF Unit (kgal
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REGULATORY FRAMEWORK REVIEW The fra
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Table ES.1.12 NSUAA Summary of Stat
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above, the researchers offer the fo
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service is preferable, and would he
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practices (BMPs) should be implemen
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infrastructure of the building and
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multi-family housing. The transfer
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODU CTION More and mo
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In 1998, 15.0%, or 15.4 million, of
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TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS OF BILL
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submetering. With utility-submeteri
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all the two bedroom units for $20 p
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HOW TO USE THIS REPORT This report
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CHAPTER 2 LITERAT URE REVIEW As the
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A review of the literature unearthe
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The price elasticity of water deman
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expected. Additionally, McClelland
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submetered and five control (in-ren
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Another study might want to target
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CHAPTER 3 RESEARC H METHODS, APPROA
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1. Selection of participating study
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STUDY SITE SELECTION The Study aime
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Figure 3.2 National Multiple Family
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Matched pair protocol/survey - conf
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information given the available bud
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survey. Service companies that prov
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in “business to business” calli
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MATCHED PAIR SAMPLE The purpose of
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The second part of the visit requir
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epresentative of a known population
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51 Table 3.7 Postcard survey statis
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Table 3.8 Comparison of annual wate
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postcard survey. Nevertheless, exam
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confidence interval ranged from 49.
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particular property (e.g., the mont
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State PUC officials - water commiss
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10. The PROPID number appearing on
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These costs represent the commodity
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The postcard survey provided inform
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Table 4.4 Average number of units f
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Two-thirds of the properties that r
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Percent of Surveyed Properties with
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$700 Average Rent Per Bedroom ($) $
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Percent of Surveyed Properties with
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Impact properties were also more li
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Table 4.8 Issues considered before
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Percent of Surveyed Impact Properti
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60% Percent of Surveyed Properties
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From the visits, it was found that
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100% Percent of Surveyed Residents
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Roughly similar proportions of resi
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inserts for toilets (21%) or low-fl
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proportion were unsure, 37% from su
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Table 4.18 Ownership and rental rat
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Figure 4.17 Submeter water bill #1
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wastewater rates are not shown so t
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Figure 4.23 Hot water hybrid water
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RUBS Sample Bills Seven sample RUBS
Page 164 and 165: wastewater rates are not shown so t
Page 166 and 167: Figure 4.28 RUBS water bill #4 from
Page 168 and 169: Figure 4.30 RUBS water bill #6 RUBS
Page 170 and 171: directly to and then paid by the th
Page 172 and 173: never subtracting for common area w
Page 174 and 175: Late Fees At the start of water bil
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Page 178 and 179: intuitively clear, and matches comm
Page 180 and 181: Indoor water use was normalized on
Page 182 and 183: Table 5.3 Summarized water use anal
Page 184 and 185: easonable assumption since there is
Page 186 and 187: Figure 5.1 shows the frequency dist
Page 188 and 189: 40 Difference in Annual Water Use p
Page 190 and 191: after 1995. By including only those
Page 192 and 193: 70 Average Annual Water Use Per Uni
Page 194 and 195: Table 5.11 Statistical tests compar
Page 196 and 197: Factors that Influence Water Use Th
Page 198 and 199: Table 5.12 Association of categoric
Page 200 and 201: Indoor Water Use per Unit in 2001 I
Page 202 and 203: Table 5.13 Continuous factors from
Page 204 and 205: Multivariate Models to Determine Im
Page 206 and 207: properties built before 1995 were c
Page 208 and 209: 70 Average Annual Water Use Per Uni
Page 210 and 211: A = Beta coefficient for “Propert
Page 212 and 213: substantially reduces the sample si
Page 216 and 217: 0.00 indicating that whatever fit d
Page 218 and 219: commodity charge for water and wast
Page 220 and 221: properties having generally lower w
Page 222 and 223: 110 Average Annual Water Use Per Un
Page 224 and 225: analysis, intended to control best
Page 226 and 227: Table 5.27 Paired samples test, all
Page 228 and 229: Table 5.30 Estimated water use befo
Page 230 and 231: Table 5.33 Comparison of water savi
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Page 234 and 235: sector only reduced usage by 18% (A
Page 236 and 237: Table 6.1 Avoided costs from submet
Page 238 and 239: submetered. Complete responses of c
Page 240 and 241: included in this cost/benefit analy
Page 242 and 243: Table 6.3 Cost and benefit for owne
Page 244 and 245: Perceived Concerns In the resident
Page 246 and 247: With a service fee, residents could
Page 248 and 249: Table 6.4 Economic return for a res
Page 250 and 251: ANALYSIS OF PRICE ELASTICITIES Econ
Page 252 and 253: concluded that if a single elastici
Page 254 and 255: esults from this analysis point to
Page 256 and 257: over which they have control than d
Page 258 and 259: According to the basic consumer cho
Page 260 and 261: The consumer choice problem can be
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water systems from compliance with
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and methods of practice. NIST publi
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Table 7.1 NSUAA Summary of State Re
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New Surveys of State Agencies and W
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the AWWA WaterStats 1999 database.
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Measures, which dispatches a public
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Mississippi, Missouri, Pennsylvania
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226 Table 7.6 Summary of utility re
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DISCUSSION - KEY EXAMPLES OF STATE
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ill. Condominium associations are g
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under construction after January 1,
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Weights and Measures Regulation In
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from the submetering. Meter testing
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clean and decent housing or the lac
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240
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NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE F
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complaints in all 50 states and app
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- Meters must demonstrate in testin
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- Plumbing systems are space constr
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(2) Twisted or kinked flex supply l
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252
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Estimated Water Use By Different Bi
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there are clear benefits to these s
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study site. These values were then
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immediately strengthens the owner's
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among the nation's key strategies f
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all repair and replacement decision
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These findings underscore the obser
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varies with volume of use) for mult
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Recommendation 6 - Efficient plumbi
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financially responsible for their o
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individual unit, the volume allocat
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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARC
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Fixed rates - Part of a master mete
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Total-capture submetering - a type
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282
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Corral, L.R. 1997. Price and Non-Pr
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McClelland, L. 1980. Encouraging En
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Young, C.E., K.R. Kinsley and W.E.
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