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McClelland, L. 1980. Encouraging Energy Conservation in Multi-family Housing: RUBS and Other Methods of Allocating Energy Costs to Residents, Vol. I and II. Boulder, CO: University of Colorado at Boulder. MWDSC and MWDOC (Metropolitan Water District of Southern California and Municipal Water District of Orange County), 2002. "Orange County Saturation Study." Moncur, J.E.T. 1989. Drought Episodes Management: The Role of Price. Water Resources Bulletin, 25(3): 499-505. NIST. 2004. General Information. Internet. http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/general2.htm. NIST. 2004. Handbook 44: Specifications, Tolerances, and Other Technical Requirements for Weighing and Measuring Devices. Internet. http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/h44- 04/Word/3.37-H44-04-Z.doc NRC. 2001. “A National Study of Laundry-Water Use in Multi-Housing.” Research Report. National Research Center, Boulder, Colorado. NWF (National Wildlife Federation). 1992. “Water Conservation News.” National Multi Housing Council. 1998a. Apartment Residents in 1998. NMHC Research Notes. National Multi Housing Council. 1998b. Who Pays Apartment Residents’ Utility Bills? NMHC Research Notes. Nieswiadomy, M.L. 1992. Estimating Urban Residential Water Demand: Effects of Price Structure, Conservation, Education. Water Resources Research, 28(3): 609-15. Palmer, D.H. 1999. The Economics of Submetering. Master-Meter, Inc. Pint, E.M. 1999. Household Responses to Increased Water Rates During the California Drought. Land Economics, 75(2): 246-266. Planning and Management Consultants. 1984. Influence of Price and Rate Structures on Municipal and Industrial Water Use. Fort Belvoir, VA: Institute for Water Resources, United States Army Corps of Engineers. Porges, R. 1957. Factors Influencing Per Capita Water Consumption. Water and Sewage Works, 104(May): 199-204. Rosales, J., C. Weiss, and W. DeOreo. 2002. The Impacts of Submetering on Water Usage at Two Mobile Home Communities in Las Vegas, Nevada. . In Water Sources Conference Proceedings. Las Vegas, NV: AWWA. 286
Schlette, T. C., and D. C. Kemp. 1991. Setting rates to encourage water conservation. Water Engineering and Management, 138(5):25-29. Schneider, M.L. and E.E. Whitlatch. 1991. User-Specific Water Demand Elasticities. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 117(1): 52-73. Seligman, C. and J. M. Darley. 1977. Feedback as a Means of Decreasing Residential Energy Consumption. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62(4): 363-368. Stevens, T.H., J. Miller, C. Willis. 1993. Effect of Price Structure on Residential Water Demand. Water Resources Bulletin, 28(4):113-125. Strub, D. 2000. Measure for Measure: Water Submetering and Allocation in Multi-family Housing in Austin, Texas. Master of Public Affairs thesis. University of Texas. Austin, TX. Strub, D. 2002. New Law Affects Multi-family Billing. Texas H 2 0, Oct./Nov.: 5-6. US Census Bureau 2000. “American FactFinder: General Characteristics: Population and Housing.” Internet. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/BasicFactsServlet (Mar. 13 2003). US Census Bureau, 2003. "Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2003," Table 959, "Housing Units--Characteristics by Tenure and Region: 2001." Also, Table 942, "New Privately- Owned Housing Units Started--Selected Characteristics: 1970 to 2002." US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), 2002. "The Clean Water and Drinking Water Infrastructure Gap Analysis," EPA-816-R-02-020. USGS (United States Geological Survey), 2004. "Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2000," USGS Circular 1268. Water Resources Engineering, Inc., 2002. "Overview of Retrofit Strategies: A Guide for Apartment Owners and Managers," prepared for the US Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research. Water Resources Engineering, Inc., 2002. "Water Conservation Market Penetration Study," East Bay Municipal Utility District. Whitcomb, John B. (Stratus Consulting Inc.). 2002. "Freeriders in ULFT Programs." California Urban Water Conservation Council. Wilcut, E. 2002. A Comparison of Water Consumption Patterns Between Bill Allocated and Non-Allocated Multi-family Residential Establishments in San Antonio, Texas. In Water Sources Conference Proceedings. Las Vegas, NV: AWWA. 287
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NATIONAL MULTIPLE FAMILY SUBMETERIN
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CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES............
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Matched-Pair Analysis .............
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LIST OF TABLES Table ES.1.1 Breakdo
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Table 6.6 Elasticity values, analys
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Figure 4.30 RUBS water bill #6 ....
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investigated local water savings as
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We are grateful to the members of a
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quantitative aspects of separate bi
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3. Owner/postcard survey: To identi
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"averages" of impact property water
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in-rent properties, others used the
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of these models included the billin
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70 Average Annual Water Use Per Uni
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COSTS AND BENEFITS Beyond quantifyi
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service charge, then the resident w
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Billing Method Efficient Fixtures?
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70 Avg. Water Use per MF Unit (kgal
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REGULATORY FRAMEWORK REVIEW The fra
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Table ES.1.12 NSUAA Summary of Stat
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above, the researchers offer the fo
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service is preferable, and would he
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practices (BMPs) should be implemen
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infrastructure of the building and
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multi-family housing. The transfer
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODU CTION More and mo
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In 1998, 15.0%, or 15.4 million, of
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TERMINOLOGY AND DEFINITIONS OF BILL
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submetering. With utility-submeteri
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all the two bedroom units for $20 p
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HOW TO USE THIS REPORT This report
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CHAPTER 2 LITERAT URE REVIEW As the
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A review of the literature unearthe
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The price elasticity of water deman
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expected. Additionally, McClelland
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submetered and five control (in-ren
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Another study might want to target
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CHAPTER 3 RESEARC H METHODS, APPROA
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1. Selection of participating study
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STUDY SITE SELECTION The Study aime
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Figure 3.2 National Multiple Family
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Matched pair protocol/survey - conf
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information given the available bud
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survey. Service companies that prov
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in “business to business” calli
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MATCHED PAIR SAMPLE The purpose of
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The second part of the visit requir
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epresentative of a known population
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51 Table 3.7 Postcard survey statis
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Table 3.8 Comparison of annual wate
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postcard survey. Nevertheless, exam
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confidence interval ranged from 49.
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particular property (e.g., the mont
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State PUC officials - water commiss
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10. The PROPID number appearing on
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These costs represent the commodity
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The postcard survey provided inform
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Table 4.4 Average number of units f
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Two-thirds of the properties that r
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Percent of Surveyed Properties with
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$700 Average Rent Per Bedroom ($) $
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Percent of Surveyed Properties with
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Impact properties were also more li
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Table 4.8 Issues considered before
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Percent of Surveyed Impact Properti
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60% Percent of Surveyed Properties
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From the visits, it was found that
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100% Percent of Surveyed Residents
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Roughly similar proportions of resi
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inserts for toilets (21%) or low-fl
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proportion were unsure, 37% from su
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Table 4.18 Ownership and rental rat
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Figure 4.17 Submeter water bill #1
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wastewater rates are not shown so t
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Figure 4.23 Hot water hybrid water
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RUBS Sample Bills Seven sample RUBS
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wastewater rates are not shown so t
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Figure 4.28 RUBS water bill #4 from
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Figure 4.30 RUBS water bill #6 RUBS
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directly to and then paid by the th
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never subtracting for common area w
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Late Fees At the start of water bil
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124
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intuitively clear, and matches comm
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Indoor water use was normalized on
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Table 5.3 Summarized water use anal
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easonable assumption since there is
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Figure 5.1 shows the frequency dist
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40 Difference in Annual Water Use p
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after 1995. By including only those
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Table 5.11 Statistical tests compar
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Factors that Influence Water Use Th
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Table 5.12 Association of categoric
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Indoor Water Use per Unit in 2001 I
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Table 5.13 Continuous factors from
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Multivariate Models to Determine Im
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properties built before 1995 were c
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A = Beta coefficient for “Propert
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substantially reduces the sample si
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Table 5.17 Model #2 coefficients an
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0.00 indicating that whatever fit d
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commodity charge for water and wast
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properties having generally lower w
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110 Average Annual Water Use Per Un
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analysis, intended to control best
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Table 5.27 Paired samples test, all
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Table 5.30 Estimated water use befo
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Table 5.33 Comparison of water savi
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180
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sector only reduced usage by 18% (A
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Table 6.1 Avoided costs from submet
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submetered. Complete responses of c
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included in this cost/benefit analy
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Table 6.3 Cost and benefit for owne
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Perceived Concerns In the resident
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With a service fee, residents could
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Table 6.4 Economic return for a res
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ANALYSIS OF PRICE ELASTICITIES Econ
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concluded that if a single elastici
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esults from this analysis point to
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over which they have control than d
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According to the basic consumer cho
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The consumer choice problem can be
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210
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water systems from compliance with
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and methods of practice. NIST publi
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Table 7.1 NSUAA Summary of State Re
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New Surveys of State Agencies and W
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the AWWA WaterStats 1999 database.
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Measures, which dispatches a public
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Mississippi, Missouri, Pennsylvania
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226 Table 7.6 Summary of utility re
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DISCUSSION - KEY EXAMPLES OF STATE
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ill. Condominium associations are g
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under construction after January 1,
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Weights and Measures Regulation In
Page 288 and 289: from the submetering. Meter testing
Page 290 and 291: clean and decent housing or the lac
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Page 294 and 295: NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE F
Page 296 and 297: complaints in all 50 states and app
Page 298 and 299: - Meters must demonstrate in testin
Page 300 and 301: - Plumbing systems are space constr
Page 302 and 303: (2) Twisted or kinked flex supply l
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Page 306 and 307: Estimated Water Use By Different Bi
Page 308 and 309: there are clear benefits to these s
Page 310 and 311: study site. These values were then
Page 312 and 313: immediately strengthens the owner's
Page 314 and 315: among the nation's key strategies f
Page 316 and 317: all repair and replacement decision
Page 318 and 319: These findings underscore the obser
Page 320 and 321: varies with volume of use) for mult
Page 322 and 323: Recommendation 6 - Efficient plumbi
Page 324 and 325: financially responsible for their o
Page 326 and 327: individual unit, the volume allocat
Page 328 and 329: RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARC
Page 330 and 331: Fixed rates - Part of a master mete
Page 332 and 333: Total-capture submetering - a type
Page 334 and 335: 282
Page 336 and 337: Corral, L.R. 1997. Price and Non-Pr
Page 340: Young, C.E., K.R. Kinsley and W.E.
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