Engineering: issues, challenges and opportunities for development ...

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ENGINEERING FOR DEVELOPMENT: APPLICATIONS AND INFRASTRUCTUREin the longer term. This may be countered to some degree bythe use of better cost reporting of maintenance and the use of‘Z Charts’ of maintenance cost information that compensatefor annual fluctuations.In a case study of a typical sugar milling industry consisting offour mills in a developing country it is estimated that approximately25 per cent of costs are attributable to maintenancerelatedactivities, mainly on labour costs. The company has nocontrol over the price of sugar, so its ability to survive mainlydepends on operational efficiency and the containment of cost,and fall particularly on the cost of maintenance. Maintenanceactivities in the four mills suffered as a result of this neglect,with maintenance activities depending mainly on the skill andinventiveness of maintenance staff at each mill; recalling tomemory the ‘smell of an oily rag’ portrayals of the operationof ageing machines and technology in the film world. In thiscase, a lack of management interest was reflected in the lack ofany systematic approach and absence of maintenance records.With an asset value of US$6 million, direct maintenance at thefour mills cost around US$10 million per year. Indirect costsnot only increased the costs of production, but also reducedtotal output due to wastage, and lead to lost income to themills, the sugar cane farmers, industry, and export income andcredibility. A planned and systematic approach to maintenancecould have considerably reduced these losses and costs,and at less overall cost.In an interesting study on the culture of maintenance forsustainable development in Tanzania, it was reported thatthe efficient and effective maintenance of production andinfrastructure facilities in Tanzania and similar economies isrooted in a broad-based social appreciation of the value ofthe facilities in question. 162 They also identified a major challengefacing development in such economies as the need toinstil, nurture, upgrade, enhance and maintain a set of socialand cultural attitudes, beliefs and empowerment that attachvalue, significance and importance of, and care for, public andprivate equipment and infrastructure. This is seen as the keyto efficient and effective maintenance, which in turn forms anessential condition for long-term competitiveness and sustainabledevelopment.Maintainability and reliabilityWhile maintenance relates to the actions required to keepequipment and infrastructure in an effective operational condition,the maintainability of equipment and infrastructure isdefined by its ability to be maintained. The maintainability ofequipment and infrastructure is primarily a design factor, butimportantly also relates to maintenance, operability and performance,and also importantly to the human factor. Designfactors for maintainability include design specifications andmaterials. Maintenance factors include the ease and regularityof maintenance of the equipment required. Human factorsinclude required skills, training and experience. Maintainabilityrelates to the costs of downtime and labour. Maintainabilityrequires planning in the context of design, human andsystem conditions and requirements. Important issues andchallenges for engineering in international development relateto the maintainability of equipment and infrastructure in differingconditions of climate, available skills and maintenanceresources, and in turn relate to technological appropriatenessand choice, and the modes of technology transfer.Reliability relates to the ability and probability of success ofequipment and infrastructure to perform required functionsunder stated conditions and periods of time. The reliability ofequipment relates to quality and is an important considerationfor maintenance management, in so far as it is expectedthat better quality items are more reliable and will need lessmaintenance; the question then being one of balance betweencost and desired reliability. Apart from quality, factors affectingreliability include production methods, operation and maintenancetechniques. Reliability may be observed, assessed, extrapolatedor predicted, and is the subject of mathematical analysis.Reliability-Centred Maintenance (RCM) was introduced inthe late 1960s in the reliability-critical aviation industry, andhas now become standard practice in many other industries.RCM focuses on system functions, function failures and consequencesof failure, from which information is then used todetermine appropriate maintenance tasks and procedures.There are several techniques used in reliability analysis, themost widely used being Failure Mode, Effects and CriticalityAnalysis (FMECA) and Fault Tree Analysis (FTA). FMECA is themost widely used technique and is based on hardware and The Huguenot Tunnelunder construction outsideCape Town.162 Bavu, I. K., Sheya, M. S., Mlawa, H. M., and Kawambwa, S. J. 1997. Culture of MaintenanceFor Sustainable Development in Tanzania, Institute of Technology Management, Dar esSalaam, Tanzania.© SAICE297
ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT Concrete bridge in seriousneed of maintenance.function failure analysis, both quantitative and non-quantitative,with failure modes classified according to the severity ofeffect. Fault Tree Analysis is a more basic form of troubleshootingto identify and localize faults in systems and equipment.Fault tree analyses are often presented as block diagrams andshould be familiar with readers of motor car and consumerequipment manuals. Reliability is sometimes presented interms of common modes of failure, material and non-materialfailure.Improving maintenance managementThe functions and activities of maintenance managers andengineers varies in companies, organizations and countries,in terms of economic, social and cultural conditions, climate,available skills and maintenance resources, and whatis expected of maintenance management and engineering interms of maintenance planning, organization, services andstandards. Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is an operationalphilosophy and methodology to enhance and optimizemaintenance performance and efficiency. The main goalsare to eliminate breakdowns, quality defects and losses dueto set-up and adjustment, idling and minor stoppages, startupand shutdown, reduced speed and capacity. The overallgoal of TPM is to improve equipment and infrastructure efficiencyand effectiveness, to improve performance, productsand reliability, reduce costs, and enhance teamwork and jobsatisfaction.The most important factors for the management of maintenanceinclude maintenance scheduling and planning and thedevelopment of key performance indicators (KPIs) to monitor,evaluate and promote effective maintenance. KPIs needto have clear strategic objectives that are closely connectedto core business or organizational goals, aimed at promotingsuccess and to facilitate solutions to potential problems. KPIs,like maintenance, need to become part of a business or organizationalculture. Planning indicators are useful for monitoringthe efficiency of maintenance planning, and ‘MaintenanceRatios’ are a useful way to present maintenance costs comparedto other indicators such as the value of assets, sales andlabour costs, or to compare the hours spent on maintenancewith other hourly indicators.A strategy of continuous improvement should be a cornerstoneof maintenance management, and monitoring, evaluationand benchmarking are crucial factors in this activity.Benchmarking is the use of external reference for comparisonto improve internal practice. KPIs are an important part of thisprocess. Critical benchmarking factors include clear communicationand understanding of staff of the role and importanceof benchmarking, the linking of maintenance to performanceand productivity, participation in the benchmarking processand effective implementation of results and follow-up. Benchmarkingshould obviously be between similar equipment,industries or infrastructure, and make allowances for differences.Steps in the benchmarking process include identifyingwhat to benchmark, development of a benchmarking planand choice of data to collect, choice of external references forcomparison, collection of data, comparison of processes andrecommendations for improvement, implementation of recommendationsand recalibration of benchmarks.Benchmarking is also useful to understand one’s own activityor organization and how it works, in comparison with similaractivities and organizations, in developing and implementingimprovements, monitoring and evaluating results. Efficienciesgained and savings made are significant justifying andmotivating factors for benchmarking and the importance ofmaintenance, and helps plant the seed of organizational andcultural change among staff and management.6.2.7 Infrastructure developmentin developing countriesArvind K. PoothiaThe development of infrastructure required to support largepopulations in developing countries is lagging far behind therate of urbanization. It is necessary to focus on integratedinfrastructure development, which in turn requires a capacitybasedapproach to planning. The need is for the creation ofmodern infrastructure systems for energy, water, waste management,sanitation, drainage, transport and habitat in informalurban settlements in developing countries, while learningfrom the mistakes of developed countries in order to take asustainable and affordable approach.© SAICEThe transformation of land to meet housing needs should beon the basis of anticipated growth patterns and environmentalconstraints, supported by enabled investment and technologychoice. This requires the application of sustainable298
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UNESCO ReportEngineering:IssuesChal
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This landmark report on engineering
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Executive SummaryAn agenda for engi
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ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND
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Introductionto the Report
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INTRODUCTION© GFDL - Wikimedia - L
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1What is Engineering?
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WHAT IS ENGINEERING?and awareness o
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WHAT IS ENGINEERING?1.2 Engineers,
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2Engineering andHuman Development
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ENGINEERING AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENTth
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3Engineering:Emerging Issues and Ch
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5Engineering around the world
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ENGINEERING AROUND THE WORLDnationa
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ENGINEERING AROUND THE WORLDTable 1
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APPENDICES9.1Engineering at UNESCO
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APPENDICES9.2Biographies of Contrib
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APPENDICESopment of software for in
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APPENDICESwas President of the Euro
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APPENDICESous career in higher educ
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APPENDICES2002 and has led the deve
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APPENDICESity engineering, and form
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APPENDICESKevin WallDr Kevin Wall i
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APPENDICES9.3List of acronyms abbre
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APPENDICESIAAMRHIACETICCICEICIDICSU
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APPENDICESUNCSTDUNCTADUNDPUNEPUNESC
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APPENDICES212, 213, 214, 215, 217,
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