Engineering: issues, challenges and opportunities for development ...

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ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DEVELOPMENTrespective Member States using a common questionnaire,though each agency manages its own database and analysis.With regard to engineers in particular, the ISCED 1997 classificationintroduces a new set of ten broad fields of education,one of which is the ‘engineering, manufacturing and construction’category with three new sub-categories (differentfrom the ISCED 1976 classification described in section 4.1.3).They are, as much as possible, used for the data presented inthe tables and charts.Tables 1 to 6 show data for the world. Tables 7 to 12 show datafor countries in the OECD and the European area, as there areno corresponding worldwide data available. (Go to section4.1.8 to view the Tables).Engineering, Manufacturing and Construction(ISCED 1997 Classification)Engineering and engineering trades: engineering drawing, mechanics,metal work, electricity, electronics, telecommunications, energyand chemical engineering, vehicle maintenance and surveying.Manufacturing and processing: food and drink processing, textiles,clothes, footwear, leather, materials such as wood, paper, plastic andglass.Architecture and building: architecture and town planning, structuralarchitecture, landscape architecture, community planning,cartography, building construction and civil engineering.Notes on the statisticsThese macro-statistics should be interpreted with care giventhat the quality of the data is not always fully satisfactory.UNESCO data on education is only available for the broad ‘engineering,manufacturing and construction’ category as a whole,whereas in the case of OECD and Eurostat they issue separatedata for its three sub-categories. Therefore, with the worldwideUNESCO data as the lowest common denominator, the tablesand charts show the data for the whole category as a priority.Some separate data from OECD and Eurostat are available inthe three sub-categories for the new levels introduced for thehighest classes of the revised ISCED, notably 6, 5A and 5B (seesection 4.1.3 for more detail). The UNESCO data for ISCED categories5 and 6 have been amalgamated and this again is used asthe lowest common denominator for comparison.Discrepancies in data availability can also be seen in the tables,particularly those between industrialized countries (typicallyOECD and associated states) where the bulk of the world’s engineersare still found, and the emerging economies. Unfortunately,statistical information for the industrializing countries, which arethe major regional economies, is also not yet available.Trends are often more important for policy analysis than examiningabsolute figures at a given moment in time. Time seriesare most complete for the industrialized countries, though thesituation is steadily improving for a number of the industrializingUNESCO Member States.Data for tertiary education statistics are collected for studentsentering education (enrolments), students in the pipeline, andstudents leaving education with an appropriate qualification(graduates). Enrolment numbers may reflect present interestin specific studies, whereas, several years previously, graduatenumbers perhaps reflected more on policy or employmentconcerns. Gender data are by and large available for bothenrolments and graduates.As a rule, analysing trends is more informative for policy analysisthan examining absolute figures at a given moment in time.Time series are still most complete for ‘developed’ countriesthough the situation is steadily improving also for a number ofindustrializing UNESCO Member States.Given that the quality criteria of the data are not always fullysatisfactory, these ‘macro’ series should be interpreted withcare. Furthermore, statistical information is still unfortunatelyunavailable for some of the principal regional economies inthe world (Russian Federation, China, Indonesia, Singapore,Thailand, Egypt, Nigeria and others) though there is hope thatthe statistical series concerned will already be completed inthe rather short term.As far as ‘engineers’ are concerned, the ‘new’ ISCED (1997)introduces a novel set of ten broad groups of fields of education,one of which is ‘Engineering, manufacturing and construction’(different from the ISCED-76 version describedearlier) with three new subcategories (and programmes):■■■Engineering and engineering trades: Engineering drawing,mechanics, metal work, electricity, electronics, telecommunications,energy and chemical engineering, vehicle maintenance,surveying.Manufacturing and processing: Food and drink processing,textiles, clothes, footwear, leather, materials (wood, paper,plastic, glass, etc.)Architecture and building: Architecture and town planning,structural architecture, landscape architecture, communityplanning, cartography, building construction, civil engineering.Whereas the OECD and Eurostat issue separate data for each ofthe above three sub-categories (where the first one, Engineeringand engineering trades, is of particular interest), UNESCOonly provides their full subtotal, which – as the smallest com-80
AN OVERVIEW OF ENGINEERINGmon denominator – is presented as priority in the worldwideenrolments and graduates series below. Earlier (see the section4.1.6 on the careers of doctorate holders) we also discussed thebreakdown of new levels of the highest classes of the revisedISCED (notably 6 and 5A and 5B) for which some separate dataare available from OECD and Eurostat. However, once again,we shall have to draw on the UNESCO series where the aboveISCED categories 5 and 6 have been amalgamated.Introductory analysis of the statistics on educationWhat do these statistics tell us concerning the current andnear-future supply of engineers? Are the recurring concerns ofmismatches between demand and supply justified?To begin with, engineering studies enrolments have increased inevery country in absolute terms over the last decade, with onlyvery few exceptions. The rates of increase, of course, are varied.However, engineering studies enrolments indicate a decline inmost countries in relative terms over the same period – despitetheir absolute growth – when compared to total enrolmentsin tertiary education in a country and enrolments in otherdisciplines. The increases in absolute enrolment numbers aretherefore explained, to some extent, by the general overallincreases in the numbers entering tertiary education, ratherthan a move towards engineering studies by young people.It is also clear that female engineering studies enrolments areincreasing more quickly than those of male enrolments, andaccordingly also their share in the total student and graduatenumbers. The proportions are however still low in mostcountries, and in some very low. It is not really possible to pinpointany common trends (increases, stagnation or decreases)between and within the regions of the world (essentiallyUNESCO groupings). Whereas numbers are reasonably stableover time in the largest countries, more relative year-to-yearvariations may be observed in smaller countries and, notably,in those of the developing regions for which data is not regularlyavailable.The overall tendency within the countries covered by theOECD / Eurostat data is slow but steady growth in the numbersof engineering studies enrolments. The principal exceptionsto this are Japan, the Netherlands, Norway and Korea wherenotable decreases of some 5 to 10 per cent have been recordedsince the late 1990s. Such declines are taken very seriously bynational authorities at a time of stagnating demographics andthe retirement of engineers who graduated immediately afterthe ‘baby boom’. In Japan for instance, various measures aretaken with a view to reinforcing immigration of qualified scientistsand engineers from, or outsourcing R&D to, other countriesin the region. Initiatives are also reinforced in a numberof countries to stimulate the return home of highly qualifiedexpatriates.It is worthwhile noting, just as an example, that total engineeringstudies enrolments in Korea are about one-third higherthan those of Japan (according to the UNESCO series).In Europe and the broader OECD area, which shows a medianincrease of 10 per cent, enrolments appear to be growing fasterin several of the new European Member States, many of whichwere in earlier times integrated in the Eastern Bloc or part ofthe former Federation of Yugoslavia. Similar growth is seen in anumber of the former Soviet republics in Central Asia.Considerable and regular progress is noticed in the Mediterraneanregion, including Turkey (an OECD member) and thecountries of North Africa and, with the perceptible exceptionof Saudi Arabia, in the Arab countries in general.In the South and West Asian region, enrolments in engineeringstudies have risen five-fold in Bangladesh since the startof the century and by around half in India, Iran and Pakistan.In the first three of these countries, the numbers of femalestudents are also increasing at high rates but are decreasingin Pakistan.In the sub-Saharan region of Africa, there are still manycountries not yet reporting to UNESCO despite the UIS’ssteadily intensified capacity-building efforts. South Africaappears to be the leading country in the region for engineeringstudies enrolments in absolute terms with a 60 per cent increasebetween 2000 and 2006. All reporting African countries (withonly one or two exceptions) saw average growth well abovethat of Europe for instance; the growth is however startingfrom a lower base. Here again, much of the progress is due toincreased female participation. For example, Ethiopia appearsto have the second highest growth rates in this vast region,and it nearly tripled its numbers over the five years to 2005(though followed by a dramatic drop in 2006). The increasesincluded the quadrupling of female engineering students.UNESCO Member States in East Asia, the Pacific and the Caribbeaninclude a large number of smaller states for which nodata are reported.No common picture may be drawn for Latin America whereenrolments in engineering studies are increasing in Columbia,Mexico and Brazil but are decreasing in Argentina and Chile.The situation again varies in the smaller countries in the continent,perhaps with a slight tendency though towards slowgrowth or levelling-off.81
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This landmark report on engineering
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ENGINEERING: ISSUES CHALLENGES AND
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Introductionto the Report
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1What is Engineering?
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5Engineering around the world
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7Engineering Capacity:Education, Tr
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APPENDICES9.1Engineering at UNESCO
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APPENDICES9.2Biographies of Contrib
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APPENDICESopment of software for in
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APPENDICESKevin WallDr Kevin Wall i
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APPENDICES9.3List of acronyms abbre
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