THE UNIVERSITY OF LEIPZIG

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peoples’ Knowledge and contributions to biodiversity conservation. Such innovations by local communities are mostly in the area of in situ conservation measures that involve these peoples who retain traditional or indigenous knowledge systems. These acknowledgements are not without contradiction, but should be construed as a representation of diversity of opinion in form of local and formal institutional mediation. It is also a reflection of how formal institutions position indigenous people and local communities in both the country and within the international conservation and global market system. As earlier noted, many of the biodiversity resource rich countries in Tropical Africa are economically developing nations and the majority of their people survive outside cities and within a subsistence economy that relies heavily on such resources like forests for traditional food production knowledge. 703 For example, most economically developing African countries do not have the capacity for all of the people who live within their borders to fully enter the market economy. Without attention paid to the protection and preservation of the lands and waters of local communities and indigenous people, these nations would be unable to feed their populations. 704 This critical fact has given impetus to serious consideration of the development of community-oriented protected areas across the Afro-Tropical region to ensure that national resources development does not result into massive exploitation. Some countries in acknowledgement of their agreement to the principles of the CBD, are seeking ways to conserve rich biospheres whilst balancing a need to ensure that traditional communities can continue to sustain themselves. Given that in most regions of the globe, significant numbers of people rely on access to their traditional land and sea resources for survival. 705 It is therefore, in the interest of nations and the interest of durable conservation to engage indigenous people and local communities in the task of protecting the biological diversity in their environment. In respect to the above postulation, the Kakamega scenario and the Kenya as a whole represents a deviation from this paradigm. The deviations in this regard need no recapitulation. The Kakamega case study provides an insightful account of how indigenous peoples and local communities in Kenya have been disenfranchised of their traditional governance and management role in relation to natural resources. The vast majority of natural resources in Kenya are government-controlled. Starting with the introduction of Trust Land administration systems introduced during colonial time, virtually any land on which forests and related resource are found, does not belong to local or indigenous communities. Such resources automatically belong to the government, apart from limited examples of common customary resource rights. 703 Matowanyika, J., R. Serafin, et al. 1992. Conservation and Development in Africa: A Management Guide to Protected Areas and Local Populations in the Afrotropical Realm. Gland, Switzerland: WWF International. 704 Ibid. 705 Storrs, M. and E.Young. 1999. Indigenous Social, Economic and Cultural Issues in Land, Water and Biodiversity Conservation: A Scoping Study for WWF Australia, unpublished report on behalf of the Centre for Indigenous Natural and Cultural Resource Management, NTU, Darwin. 192
The wider and long-term implications for this kind of scenario is that the loss of biodiversity and the degrading quality of the country and regional environment. But we should also point out the increasing failure on the side of the state controlled environmental agencies to recognise the continued loss of cultures and knowledge related to biodiversity conservation. Traditional peoples have accumulated vast amounts of ecological knowledge in their long history of managing the environment - knowledge that could be beneficial for nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources in the country. Through evaluation and analysis, we have found out that indigenous and traditional peoples can sustainably manage their resources, maintain usage, and strengthen their traditional/ local ecological knowledge. Therefore, it is imperative that central and regional level governments fully respects indigenous and traditional peoples' importance in terms of their role in ecological conservation, through realization that their local institutions have in some respects been instrumental in the management and governance of national resources, though this is a difficult and complex challenge in times of globalisation and expanding economic and market forces; a task that requires cooperation and partnerships. Implications for policy The theoretical arguments related to local participation and establishment of institutions for effective management of forest biodiversity in protected areas have been highlighted at length in the previous chapters and various sections of this chapter. There is no doubt that, without genuine institutional support and participation, successful resource conservation in Kakamega forest and Kenya at large will be hard to achieve. In this section we make an analysis of the existing weakness in the institutional frameworks for the management of forest resources in Kenya and specifically the implications for national resource regimes. In the same analysis lie the critical issues that need to be revisited in order to review the existing flaws in the management of the forests like Kakamega. For the purposes of this study, the existing institutional issues and implications will be examined at three levels. These include the national level, sub-national/regional level and the local level. At the national level, a highly dominant and influential state-centred characteristic of the institutional context in which the creation of Kakamega Forest Reserve is situated, greatly obtains. This exemplifies the centralised nature of the institutional structure in Kenya. Particularly in the regard to environmental state institutions and agencies, most of the decision-making takes place in the capital city, Nairobi, with minimal decision-making power held by sub-national. Several agencies involved in the planning and management of natural resources like forests reserves, admitted to this centralised system. This has been a commonly reported drawback in the management of Kakamega forest Reserve. This has also been high lighted in the management of other protected area management systems such as Latin America, 706 and Tropical Africa. 707 This system of centralised government and large 706 Hall, A. 1997. Sustaining Amazonia: Grassroots Action for Productive Conservation. Manchester: 193
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INSTITUTIONAL DILEMMAS IN TROPICAL
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Dedication This work is dedicated i
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7.4 COLLECTIVE COMMUNITY ACTION AND
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UNDP United Nations Development Pro
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1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction Ken
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are mediated into the national poli
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Giddens notes that linking agency a
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foreign exchange controls made the
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and to preserve the different fores
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Map 2: Landsat ETM+ (7) satellite i
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egimes. 46 Yet national regimes gov
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Institutions and Institutionalism:
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learn that in practice, the definit
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The above revelations show the disc
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technologies. This kind of thinking
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The social movement’s notion arti
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1.8 Methodology The choice of resea
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Sources of data Data for this study
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knowledge, opinions, notions in rel
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2 Theoretical Considerations 2.1 In
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opposed to particularistic in the i
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constraints have to be applicable t
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process is a product of both extern
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position also influences actors’
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to a specific choice problem, which
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communications and authority relati
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the subsequent lack of general or s
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generally. Historical institutional
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can have remarkable consequences at
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myths and ceremonies devised by man
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In light of the above postulation,
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among inter ethnic relations. 273 D
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also important for maintaining the
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what sort of environment is left fo
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Rittberger called it “institution
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of governance. 314 For instance, fo
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and his claims. Hence it is the fun
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trees, food resources, warmth or ab
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environmental externality function
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Wear observes that the enhancement
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4 Biodiversity, local decentralisat
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officials found to have dished out
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national level. At the local level
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declared a ban on felling indigenou
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4.2 Institutionalism, local decentr
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iodiversity change been altered, bu
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We shall use the term participation
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known as community forest user grou
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1960s and early 1970s in Europe and
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upholding of the social values and
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The social-cognitive dimension can
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as goods and certain services, and
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In summary, in this chapter we have
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This is compouded by glowing struct
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the Constitution. The Constitutiona
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far as ownership is concerned. As a
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maximum spring discharge level. 501
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During pre-colonial times, issues o
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whose boundaries could not be alter
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Although Kenya’s policy and legal
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egeneration thereof or biodiversity
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marine and fresh water resources an
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In addition, the director of Agricu
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Gottfried suggested that natural re
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Based on the review and analysis of
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Furthermore, issues of monitoring a
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players, especially given the role
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household was 6. Adults are here de
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eadily available for the researcher
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It is imperative to appreciate that
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tragedy for the entire household, c
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Table 6.6 Why persons are named aft
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the extreme lowland side, the area
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on the forest biodiversity is neith
Page 149 and 150: settling around the Mount Elgon are
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Page 153 and 154: Gender, cropping systems and labour
Page 155 and 156: ural livelihoods, it became the foc
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Page 159 and 160: Like we have earlier noted, most of
Page 161 and 162: When asked how such people (Custodi
Page 163 and 164: 7 Historical and Sociological Insti
Page 165 and 166: Biodiversity and customary law in K
Page 167 and 168: education and a majority of social
Page 169 and 170: Put in the context of Kakamega, it
Page 171 and 172: with one of the Tirirki elders, the
Page 173 and 174: places, there was an array of reaso
Page 175 and 176: Further still, it was discovered th
Page 177 and 178: 7.4 Collective community action and
Page 179 and 180: development of various community re
Page 181 and 182: Other scholars in the area of prope
Page 183 and 184: for instance, where common property
Page 185 and 186: 8 Summary and Conclusions 8.1 Recap
Page 187 and 188: Conclusions The overall objective o
Page 189 and 190: already exits within the Luhya reso
Page 191 and 192: sense, the community conserved area
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Page 195 and 196: We have already indicated that like
Page 197 and 198: prohibiting the use of natural reso
Page 199: economic and cultural values with a
Page 203 and 204: will make it much more difficult to
Page 205 and 206: 8.5 Summary The findings that have
Page 207 and 208: initial conditions, path dependence
Page 209 and 210: References BOOKS Adrian, P. 2003. T
Page 211 and 212: Downs, R. E. and S. P. Reyna. 1988.
Page 213 and 214: Kanyinga, K. 1994. Ethnicity, Patro
Page 215 and 216: Neisser, U. 1967. Cognitive Psychol
Page 217 and 218: Strathern, M. 2000. Environments wi
Page 219 and 220: Reardon, T and Vosti, S. A. 1995. L
Page 221 and 222: Krhoda, G. 1998. What Ails Kenya's
Page 223 and 224: Strathern, M. 1996. Potential Prope
Page 225 and 226: Colchester, M. 2003. Conservation P
Page 227 and 228: Murombedzi, J. 1998. The Evolving C
Page 229 and 230: Newspapers The Daily Nation Karura
Page 231 and 232: List of Figures and Maps Map 1 Map
Page 233 and 234: Response Codes Snakes Monkeys Frogs
Page 235 and 236: Section 3. Usage and management for
Page 237 and 238: Code How often are such ceremonies
Page 239 and 240: Section 5. Management of local know
Page 241 and 242: Code Who is responsible for growing
Page 243 and 244: Appendix B. Schedule of organizatio
Page 245 and 246: The interviews focused on the confl
Page 247 and 248: Appendix D. Bibliographic schedule
Page 249: Versicherung Ich versichere, dass i
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