Rethinking Schooling for the 21st Century

documents across the major East Asian states (Figure 3.2; see also Appendix
II-12i). Formal definitions of ‘nationhood’ differ significantly amongst these
societies, with multicultural diversity, for example, enshrined in official definitions
of ‘Chineseness’ in a way that we do not find in official identity discourse in Japan
or Korea. Nevertheless, mainstream conceptions of identity (whether ‘national’
or ‘minority’) typically frame it as primordially-determined and ethno-culturally
rooted. Moreover, the strong privileging of the ‘national’ category implies a
marginalisation of other dimensions of identity.
Figure 3.2 References to ‘nation as privileged referent of identity’ in primary
and secondary subject curricula in China, Japan and the Republic of
Korea
35
National Language Foreign Language Maths
Science Social Science
30
No. of references per 100 pages
25
20
15
10
5
0
China Japan Korea,
Republic
of
China Japan Korea,
Republic
of
China Japan Korea,
Republic
of
China Japan Korea,
Republic
of
China Japan Korea,
Republic
of
The Ideal Citizen and National Self-image
At first sight, differences in the language used to describe citizenship and
nationhood in China, Japan and Korea appear striking. Ringing affirmations of
China’s ‘socialist’ identity, for example, seem to distinguish it starkly from Korea
and Japan, which highlight their democratic credentials. But a closer examination
of the ways in which citizenship (‘socialist’ or ‘democratic’) is defined suggests
underlying similarities in the understanding of state-citizen relations. These are
reflected in representations of the appropriate balance between citizens’ rights
and responsibilities vis-à-vis the state, the nation’s role in international society,
and the conceptions of national identity that underpin such discussions.
Japan’s status as a democracy is emphasised in official documents, which highlight
the importance of respecting the dignity and rights of the individual. However,
the importance of bringing students to a ‘correct recognition’ of the relationship
between freedom and rights on the one hand, and duties and responsibilities on
the other is also stressed (MS Social Studies, p. 28). While attaining a deeper
‘understanding of democracy’, they should be afforded ‘the basic training
required of citizens charged with bearing the responsibilities of popular
sovereignty’. Among the ‘correct’ notions to be inculcated, a consciousness of
national identity and ‘love’ of Japan, her culture and traditions feature especially
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Chapter 3: East Asia