Rethinking Schooling for the 21st Century

around the fostering of human capital. To ensure that ESD/GCED concepts are
comprehensively taught in schools, it is necessary to include hitherto neglected
concepts such as human rights, while embracing the broader meaning and
intrinsic value of cognitive skills (such as critical thinking or creativity) and
environmental sustainability. This also implies a transformation of pedagogical
approaches, such that students are encouraged to see themselves as actively
engaged national and global citizens, rather than passive cogs in the machinery
of economic expansion.
B: Challenges of Nationalism and Identities
Emphasis on Nationalism and National Identity
Across most of Southeast Asia, official efforts to foster national consciousness
typically involve reinforcing the supremacy of the majority ethnic or religious
group. This has important ramifications not only because Southeast Asia is
socially diverse, but also because it faces critical ethnic and religious tensions
and disputes (UNESCO, 2014c). Many disadvantaged groups, including ethnic
and religious minorities and women, struggle to secure recognition for their
distinctive identities. Although the coding data suggest some acknowledgement
of the importance of justice and respect for social diversity, other major aspects
of the ESD/GCED values are understated, namely, anti-discrimination; humanity
as a privileged referent of identity; democratic participation; and embedded
identities (see Appendices II-12c, 12h, 12j, 12k).
The coding data show that crucial ESD/GCED concepts absent from or side-lined
in education policy and curricular documents include: civil liberties and freedom
(Appendix II-4); gender equality (Appendix II-5); culture of peace and non-violence
(Appendix II-6); and concepts pertaining to global citizenship (Appendices II-
7-10). There is also scant coverage of topics related to global citizenship, such
as the role of transnational corporations; the rule of international law; global
poverty; and other global issues such as genocide, terrorism, war, and refugees
(Appendix II-9). Neither the various aspects of gender equality, nor education
in issues of sexuality or reproductive health, receive any significant treatment
(Appendix II-14). A similar regional trend is evident with respect to concepts such
as non-violence, conflict resolution and peace building, which are completely
missing in the documents analysed. While references to ‘participation, active
citizenship, civic engagement, and volunteering’ are highly prevalent under the
category ‘responsible lifestyles’ (Appendix II-13.ii), there is almost no reference
to ‘engagement in debates on socio-political issues; direct action on issues of
global reach; and participation in civic protest’ under the category ‘activism’ (see
Appendix II-13.iii).
In many countries, accommodation of minorities is complicated by the fact
that nationalism is equated with the values and identity of a majority ethnic
and/or religious group. For example, serious communal conflict has persisted
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Chapter 4: Southeast Asia