Rethinking Schooling for the 21st Century

ole in heightening awareness of environmental problems. But the principal’s
singling out of the ‘local’ authorities for criticism is significant; while the probity
and efficiency of local agencies can sometimes be questioned, open criticism
of nationally-determined policies or strategies remains rare and potentially
perilous.
Research on Korean schools, meanwhile, indicates that increasing emphasis in
curricular documents on the promotion of ‘critical thinking’ and debate (see
Figure 3.1) is not typically reflected in classroom practice. The fostering of
creativity and problem-solving skills, or of attitudes associated with open and
critical debate, such as respect for racial or gender diversity, have been identified
as areas of particular weakness (Cho, 2004 as cited in Choi et al., 2009; Kim and
Chang, 2015) (on diversity, see the following section). As students progress
through the system, Moral Education, like the mainstream subjects, becomes
increasingly test-driven and content-focused, with the result that discussion
and critique typically feature low on the pedagogical agenda (Moral Education
Curriculum (Korea), pp. 35-38; Kim and Chang, 2015).
Besides cultural, institutional and political factors,
one of the most significant constraints on the pursuit
of self-directed, autonomous learning, is perhaps
class size. This is particularly true in China, where
class sizes of 70 or more are quite common at middle
school level (50-60 at primary level), but relatively
large classes (upwards of 30) are typical across the
region, especially at secondary level (OECD, 2012, p.
2). East Asian schools remain at or near the top of OECD league tables for class
size. 24 Official calls for the promotion of autonomy and creativity have generally
not been accompanied by the kinds of alterations to pupil-teacher ratios that
would render it possible to deliver the kind of individually-tailored guidance that
students engaged in varied, self-directed project work would need. As Kipnis
points out (2011, p. 107), large class sizes both require a didactic, teacher-centred
pedagogical style, and are premised on a vision of the teacher as an exemplary
authority figure.
Autonomy and the Teacher
East Asian schools
remain at or near the
top of OECD league
tables for class size
To what extent, then, are East Asian teachers encouraged or enabled to exemplify
the qualities of creativity and independence that official curricula increasingly
demand of students? We cannot assume that all teachers necessarily prioritise
such goals. However, leaving aside their own ethical orientations, and the practical
difficulties noted above, how consistent is the official espousal of autonomy? In
particular, with respect to official efforts to shape the identity of the teaching
profession, what is the ‘hidden curriculum’?
24 In Japan, the government in 2011 initiated moves to reduce class sizes, but by 2014 the
Finance Ministry was calling for increased class sizes as a cost-saving measure.
Rethinking Schooling for the 21 st Century:
The State of Education for Peace, Sustainable Development and Global Citizenship in Asia
75