Rethinking Schooling for the 21st Century

times in different places. While an associated emphasis on interdependence can
be positively construed (Rohlen, 1979; Cave, 2016), this approach by definition
suppresses the expression of diverse opinions.
If curriculum and pedagogy are designed to ensure conformity and discipline,
so — to varying degrees — are systems for administering education. Curriculum
development remains highly centralised. State control or supervision over
textbook production is strong across the region. These structures derive
legitimacy from longstanding notions of the modelling of moral correctness as a
core function of the state and its leaders (Bakken, 2000). But the flip side of the
paradigm of ruler-as-teacher is that of teacher-as-ruler, delivering knowledge
with unchallengeable authority. And key to reinforcing and institutionalising that
pedagogic model is high-stakes testing of the mastery of factual and formulaic
correctness.
Such ideas have not gone unchallenged, even (or especially) amongst education
policymakers themselves. From the 1980s, policy discourse first in Japan and
then in its East Asian neighbours has called for greater emphasis on individual
autonomy, critical thinking and creativity, and for reductions in examinationdriven
competitive intensity. In 1998, major reforms aimed to make Japanese
schooling more ‘relaxed’ (yutori) by shortening the school week, introducing
electives and creating ‘Integrated Studies’ (sougouteki-na gakushu). In China,
similar reforms were introduced under the banner of ‘quality education’ (suzhi
jiaoyu), along with limited moves to decentralise curriculum development and
textbook production (Vickers and Zeng, 2017, Chapter 6). Korea has also taken
steps to dial down the peculiar intensity of its education system, adopting the
slogan ‘Happy Education for All: Creative Talent Shapes the Future’ (Korea,
Republic of, 2013). These include introducing a ‘Free Semester’ in middle schools
(free of tests or examinations).
Figure 3.1 References to ‘critical thinking’ and ‘creative thinking’ in primary
and secondary subject curricula across China, Japan and the Republic
of Korea
60
National Language Foreign Language Maths
Science Social Science
No. of references per 100 pages
50
40
30
20
Critical Thinking
Creative Thinking
10
0
China
Japan
Korea,
Republic
of
China Japan Korea,
Republic
of
China Japan Korea,
Republic
of
China Japan Korea,
Republic
of
China Japan Korea,
Republic
of
64
Chapter 3: East Asia