Rethinking Schooling for the 21st Century

queue. The psychology of parents becomes warped, and so does that of
their children (cited in Vickers and Zeng, 2017, p. 194). 39
The effect of this elitism — pronounced in China,
newly re-emergent in Korea and Japan — has been
to accentuate education’s role in reproducing and
exacerbating inequality. Broadly speaking, this
means a continued emphasis on regimentation,
discipline and loyalty for the majority (and for
their teachers) — reflected, as we have already
noted, in the priority accorded to patriotism
and moral education in curricula across the
region. While public examinations and constant
testing and ranking exert intense individuating
pressures, schools go to great lengths to promote ethical and ideological
conformity. East Asian schooling is often represented as inculcating a strongly
‘collectivist’ ethos, and while the forms that collectivism takes differ quite
significantly across the region (as demonstrated, for example, in the classic
comparative study of preschool education by Tobin, Karasawa and Hsueh, 2009),
this stereotype broadly holds good. However, those whose possession of special
‘talent’, wealth or connections enables them to study in elite institutions such
as China’s ‘key-point schools’, or to escape altogether to schools in the West,
can experience quite a different learning environment. Both growing educational
elitism and increasing socio-economic disparities thus contribute to a widening
gulf between a privileged minority ‘licensed to think’ (whether or not they do
so) (Russell, 1932/2010, p. 12), and a majority socialised to compete to conform.
Meanwhile, one result of hyper-meritocracy, as noted by Kariya (1995), is that
elites whose position derives from success in such a system tend to be endowed
with an enormous sense of entitlement, and little compunction for those whose
presumed lassitude has led to failure (see also Ito, Kubota and Ohtake, 2015, pp.
22-3). This, indeed, is precisely the outcome that Michael Young foresaw in his
satire, The Rise of the Meritocracy (1961).
The effect of this
elitism — pronounced
in China, newly reemergent
in Korea and
Japan — has been to
accentuate education’s
role in reproducing and
exacerbating inequality
It is easy to see how this combination of an ethos of intense competition with a
strong emphasis on conformity might also constitute a recipe for serious social
39 Examinations have been criticised across East Asia for adopting methods of assessment that
reward memorisation and formulaic knowledge rather than originality or curiosity. Heavy reliance
on multiple choice-type tests is typical, prompting calls for reform. In China, proposed
changes to college entrance examinations involve expanding the range of subjects in which
applicants can choose to be assessed. However, whether any such changes — if implemented
— will reduce examination pressure is open to doubt. And regimes (as well as much of
the public) across the region value ‘objectivity’ in testing procedures. Forms of assessment
(such as the expository essay) that rely largely on the autonomous professional judgement
of the assessor can be seen as susceptible to corrupt manipulation or as favouring privileged
groups. But another key factor behind official reluctance to treat examiners — like teachers
more generally — as autonomous professionals is an overweening preoccupation with
bureaucratic (or political) control.
Rethinking Schooling for the 21 st Century:
The State of Education for Peace, Sustainable Development and Global Citizenship in Asia
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