Rethinking Schooling for the 21st Century

on employment. But while exploring the causes of the phenomenon lies beyond
the remit of this report, its consequences for ESD/GCED are highly relevant.
Educational intensity and competitiveness, centred around readily measurable
performance in core subjects, tends to squeeze out curricular space for
meaningful discussion of or engagement with issues of diversity, sustainability
or conflict. Moreover, the tyranny of competitiveness governed by rigid,
unchallengeable standards constitutes a form of ‘hidden curriculum’ deeply at
odds with the promotion of peace, tolerance or cross-cultural understanding.
The incidence of private supplementary tutoring is not known with any certainty
in Southeast Asia. While there is some research and statistical information
(albeit often dated) on aspects of private tutoring in some countries, a lack
of research and comparable datasets at the regional level means that the
prevalence of this phenomenon is likely to be understated (see for instance Bray
et al., 2015; Kenayathulla, 2015; Bray and Lykins, 2012; Benveniste, Marshall and
Santibañez, 2008; de Castro and de Guzman, 2010; Dang, 2011). Even in Singapore,
where anecdotal information points to a high percentage of school-age students
receiving private tutoring, comprehensive research on the issue is lacking (Tan,
2009). Shadow education remains ‘shadowy’ in more than one sense.
National data from many societies point to a rise in the use of private tutoring.
The likely causes are varied, and include increasing marketisation of education
across the board (extending to expansion of the private schools sector), and,
in some contexts (e.g. Cambodia and Viet Nam), the influence of traditional
tutoring practices (Bray et al., 2015; Bray and Lykins, 2012). Intense examinationoriented
competition, particularly in countries like Singapore and Malaysia
where most students now expect to access higher education, increases demand
for private tutoring (Jelani and Tan, 2012). Such demand is also accentuated by
reduced family size, as in Viet Nam, the Philippines and Singapore (de Castro
and de Guzman, 2010; Dang and Rogers, 2013). In Singapore, these combined
pressures have made schooling a difficult, stressful experience for many students
Rethinking Schooling for the 21 st Century:
The State of Education for Peace, Sustainable Development and Global Citizenship in Asia
131