Rethinking Schooling for the 21st Century

contribute to economic growth are absent in subject curricula, even if they
are mentioned in strategic documents. These include concepts pertaining to
human rights, social activism and critical debate of current issues. In Cambodia,
for example, concepts associated with ESD/GCED are flagged in the ESP, and
in policy statements and curriculum frameworks (documents likely to reach the
notice of foreign aid donors), but not in subject content. In Lao PDR, concepts
such as economic sustainability, interconnectedness and good health and wellbeing
similarly feature as desired objectives or background rationale in official
documents, but largely fail to permeate through to the level of substantive
curricular content. Likewise, in Malaysia concepts such as gender equality,
culture of peace and non-violence, global systems, structures and processes and
global issues feature in the general curriculum framework, but not in curricula
for actual school subjects. In the Philippines, some concepts mentioned in
curricular vision statements – including the commitment to upholding human
rights which is so pronounced in the national Constitution 53 – are infrequently
found in subject curricula.
Second, concepts related to the environmental dimension of sustainable
development are selectively included in subject curricula in a way that does not
encourage critical engagement with the need for a transition to sustainability.
Across Southeast Asia, certain aspects of environmental sustainability such
as conservation receive greater emphasis in the Science subjects, but in most
countries the need to promote renewable sources of energy (except in Indonesia)
or address climate change (except in Lao PDR and Thailand) are weakly covered
or not covered at all in policy and curricular documents (see Appendix II-2) (in
these respects, Singapore — which has recently sought to position itself as a
model of environmental sustainability — would also claim exceptional status). 54
The Laotian Science curriculum does not delve deeply into environmental
issues, but highlights the successful generation of hydropower in the country
(ໂລກອ້ອມໂຕ World Around Us, Grade 4 textbook), reflecting the emphasis placed
by Communist states elsewhere on the ‘taming’ of nature (on the case of China,
see Chapter 3). Discussion of environmental sustainability in Thailand’s Science
curriculum is confined to highlighting the importance of natural resources and
prudent management of their use at local, national and global levels (p. 8 of
the Grade 4 curriculum, p. 10 of the Grade 8 curriculum). Similarly, the Science
subjects in Viet Nam, particularly Biology, highlight conservation, but are silent
on issues such as climate change and renewable energy. In the Philippines, the
53 As a post-martial law document, the 1987 Constitution was drafted primarily as a rejection
of martial law and as an affirmation of peace based on human rights, freedom, social justice
and equity, and democracy, and this unequivocal avowal is palpable in many sections and
provisions of the law. Specifically, the right of all citizens to quality education, including free
education at the primary and secondary levels, was clearly articulated in this law. The constitution
is also clear about the responsibility of educational institutions to ‘inculcate’ respect
for human rights and that of the state to guarantee full respect for human rights.
54 Though scholars have highlighted the contradictions inherent in Singapore’s attempts to
reconcile developmental statism, economic and demographic expansion and environmental
sustainability (see Barnard, 2014).
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Chapter 4: Southeast Asia