Perceptual Coherence : Hearing and Seeing

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Characteristics of Auditory and Visual Scenes 115 Figure 3.4. Musical sequences constructed according to power laws. For 1/f 0 sequences, each note is chosen randomly. For 1/f 2 sequences, each successive note is determined by a random increment to the previous note. For 1/f sequences, the intervals between notes are determined according to the 1/f power law (i.e., small increments are more likely than large ones). From “1/f Noise in Music: Music From 1/f Noise,” by R. F. Voss and J. Clarke, 1978, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 63, 258–263. Copyright 1987 by the American Institute of Physics. Reprinted with permission. necessary to reproduce the fluctuations in brightness along one orientation. Field (1987) presented several pictures of widely different characteristics, calculated the amplitude of the frequency components along several axes, and then averaged the amplitudes. The brightness contrast of all six pictures followed the 1/f relationship.
116 Perceptual Coherence Field argued that a 1/f amplitude relationship would occur if the relative contrasts were independent of viewing distance. Imagine taking a simple picture of a black-and-white grating and moving it twice the distance away. Now the black-and-white bars are half as wide, so that the frequency of the grating is twice the original frequency. If the amplitude falls off at 1/f, each octave will still have equal energy, so that the relative power in each doubled frequency will not change. Moreover, each octave will have the same variance (i.e., the same amount of information), so that if each neural unit has the same bandwidth, each will transmit an equal amount of information. Ruderman (1997) pointed out that the 1/f relationship for natural scenes is remarkably constant even for striking changes in the brightness of individual pixels. A strong test of the 1/f relationship can be done by first averaging small blocks of pixels, say all 2 × 2 blocks, and then demonstrating that the 1/f relationship still holds for the averaged signal. (Since mixing pixels reduces the total contrast, the contrast would need to be renormalized.) As an extreme case of blocking, Ruderman converted all pixels below the average brightness to black and all pixels above average brightness to white. All such conversions did not affect the 1/f scaling, demonstrating that whatever statistical structure exists at one spatial (i.e., angular) grain exists at all levels of the grain. Up to this point, the 1/f amplitude-scaling factor was calculated by measuring the correlations among the pixels in one static image, although it is clear that images change gradually in time just as they change in space. Dong and Atick (1995) argued that in general it is impossible to separate the spatial and temporal variation. However, in cases in which the spatial and temporal regularities can be separated, the temporal power scaling factor is 1/w 2 (in Hz) and the amplitude scaling factor is 1/f (also see Hateren, 1993). Thus the spatial and temporal scaling factors are roughly the same. To explain this outcome, Dong and Atick suggested that there is a distribution of static images at different distances and also that there is a distribution of relative motions at different velocities (essentially the same type of distribution found for relative contrast levels). Implications of 1/f c Power Laws Why is this important? Remember the basic argument in chapter 1 that contrast provides the critical information for audition and vision. If the amplitude falls off at 1/f, then there will be roughly equal contrast auditory and visual energy in all octave bandwidths. If the visual system or the auditory system is organized into sensors with octave bandwidths, which seemed to be true for the visual and auditory space-time receptive fields described in chapter 2, then each sensor will encode and transmit an equal amount of information about the contrast in terms of the variance in its firing rate. As is
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PERCEPTUAL COHERENCE
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Perceptual Coherence Hearing and Se
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To My Family, My Parents, and the B
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Preface The purpose of this book is
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Preface ix intertwined with my own
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Contents 1. Basic Concepts 3 2. Tra
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PERCEPTUAL COHERENCE
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1 Basic Concepts In the beginning G
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Basic Concepts 5 sources moving in
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even though its appearance changes.
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sources. A single sound source is t
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straight line parallel to the actua
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continuous sound. The correspondenc
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Basic Concepts 15 overall uncertain
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problem. The “snapshots” in spa
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segments at different orientations.
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in amplitude across time (analogous
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Basic Concepts 23 visual experience
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we would expect the correlation to
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Transformation of Sensory Informati
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Table 2.1 Derivation of the Recepti
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Figure 2.7. Continued
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Page 78 and 79: Transformation of Sensory Informati
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Figure 4.8. Continued The Transitio
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Surface Textures Visual Glass Patte
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The Transition Between Noise and St
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Figure 4.11. Continued The Transiti
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(A) (B) (C) The Transition Between
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(A) (B) Warbleness The Transition B
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2000 Hz with a single action potent
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The same problem of the multiplicit
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order to create the appearance of s
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Perception of Motion 199 Figure 5.2
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Perception of Motion 203 together.
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Perception of Motion 205 (The two f
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again, two perceptions can result a
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Perception of Motion 211 notes of t
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Perception of Motion 213 Braddick (
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larger arrays and Baddeley and Tirp
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Perception of Motion 217 the judgme
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Perception of Motion 219 one color
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To review, neurons sensitive to mot
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Transparency aftereffects do occur
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Perception of Motion 225 stimuli, t
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Perception of Motion 231 perception
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Perception of Motion 237 same direc
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Time 1, Tone 1 is turned off, at Ti
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6 Gain Control and External and Int
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a signal-to-noise ratio), and Barlo
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Gain Control and External and Inter
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Suppose we have a background that h
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R Gain Control and External and Int
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Makous (1997) pointed out how diffi
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contrast that defines the boundarie
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per Second Figure 6.10. Continued G
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ane was linear, the higher sound pr
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(C. D. Geisler, 1998; C. D. Geisler
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noise visual field. 4 The S + N inp
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B. Murray, Bennett, and Sekular (20
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The authors proposed that the four
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Efficiency and Noise in Auditory Pr
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etween samples). Spiegel and Green
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In sum, the masking release is grea
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The Perception of Quality: Visual C
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Visual Worlds Modeling the Light Re
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Indirect Illumination Causing Specu
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of an object but also require the c
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assumed, so that the surface irradi
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Relative Power of Basis Functions S
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that the reflectance of the test co
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amount of light transmitted through
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light reflected by all surfaces in
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magenta to white). Then Bloj et al.
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Why is there opponent processing? O
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8 The Perception of Quality: Audito
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exists at several levels: (a) descr
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The Perception of Quality: Auditory
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mode is proportional to the relativ
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The overall result is that the rela
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obvious. The tension on the vocal c
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(termed the amplitude envelopes) ar
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obviously misplaced). The majority
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Pastore (1991) investigated whether
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experience. Erickson (2003) found t
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Rhythmic patterning usually gives i
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Let me summarize at this point. The
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the oddball note to be the one most
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9 Auditory and Visual Segmentation
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Auditory and Visual Segmentation 37
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processes (e.g., basilar membrane v
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same time, the difficulty of detect
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elease (discussed in chapter 6) dem
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(A) Target Rhythm Target + Masking
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to grouping by perceived position d
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4. Convexity: Convex figures usuall
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filter inferred from the background
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Jackson (1953) found that the sound
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a speaking face is located in front
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was high, then the resolution of th
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Listeners were more likely to repor
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10 Summing Up Perceiving is the con
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Summing Up 423 course of the stimul
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References Adelson, E. H. (1982). S
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References 427 Bermant, R. I., & We
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References 429 Crawford, B. H. (194
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References 431 Feldman, J., & Singh
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References 433 and male voices in t
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References 435 Isabelle, S. K., & C
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References 437 Laughlin, S. B. (200
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References 439 McAdams, S., Winsber
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References 441 Pittinger, J. B., Sh
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References 443 Shamma, S. (2001). O
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References 445 Troost, J. M. (1998)
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References 447 Welch, R. B. (1999).
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Index Boldfaced entries refer to ci
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Barbour, D. L., 83, 367, 426 Barlow
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Color reflectance 1/f c amplitude f
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Figure-ground auditory, 373, 421 in
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Hallikainen, J., 304, 440 Handel, S
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K-order statistics. See Visual text
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separation of things, 5 See also Pe
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Recanzone, G. H., 409-412, 441, 443
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Stream segregation default assumpti
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vibration frequencies of air masses
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Wavelet analysis. See Sparse coding
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