how do adolescents define depression? - cIRcle - University of ...

Cognitions, Emotions, Context, and Social Factors
Chapter II: Literature Review
Research findings indicate that many different cognitive and emotional factors are
associated with depressive symptomatology, yet their meaning is less defined. Often, labels of a
depressed mood (e.g., sadness, blue) are assigned to depression; however, what these readings
mean specifically is unclear. Other factors can include negative thinking (Garber, Weiss, &
Shanley, 1993), hopelessness (Kreuger, 2002; Stanard, 2000), negative self-perceptions
(Kreuger, 2002), negative subjectivity (Lykken & Tellegen, 1996), expressions of negative
emotion (Plomin, 1997). Negative emotionality, such as a dysfunctional attributional style, a
hostile attributional style, and maladaptive coping patterns, have been linked with affective
disorders (Watson, Clark, & Carey, 1988). Irritability and sadness can also be a depressed mood
(APA, 2000; Compas & Oppedisano, 2000; Farmer, 2002; Mueller & Orvaschel, 1997), yet little
is known about this linkage. Bishop, Dalgleish, and Yule (2004) suggest that depressogenic
cognitive biases, or a tendency toward negative statements, can occur as early as five years of
age, and point to vulnerability to depression. Emotions and cognitions may be interwoven with
adolescents' conceptions of depression.
Numerous research findings concentrate on difficulties of social relationships and their
link to adolescent depression. Loneliness is one factor that has a direct effect on adolescent
depression (Brage & Meredith, 1994). Joiner, Catanzaro, and Laurent (2002) found that
depressed individuals seek excessive reassurance, which leads to rejections by others. The list of
social problems associated with depression includes alienation (Gjerde, Block, & Block, 1988),
lack of self-belonging (Stanard, 2000), maladaptive coping patterns (Kreuger, 2002), behavioral
inhibition and shyness (Cherny, Fulker, Corley, Plomin, & DeFries, 1994), and an inability to
process social information (Crick & Dodge, 1994; Goodman, 2003). Loehlin (1992) cited overall
psychosocial dysfunctioning (Gotlib, Lewinsohn, & Seeley, 1995; Hankin & Abramson, 2001), a
temperament dimension of sociability (Goldsmith, Buss, & Lemery, 1997; Plomin, 1997), and a
hostile attributional style (Kreuger, 2002). Further, the risk of depression increases in the absence
of social support (Brown & Harris, 1978; Hankin & Abramson, 2001; Wong & Wiest, 1999).
Moderate depressive symptoms are associated with academic and peer difficulties (Hankin &
Abramson, 2001; Nolen-Hoeksema, Girgus, & Seligman, 1992; Petersen, Sarigiani, & Kennedy,
1991). These studies indicate that there is a link between relationship difficulties and depressive
symptomatology, however what these relationship difficulties mean specifically is unclear.
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