how do adolescents define depression? - cIRcle - University of ...

Chapter II: Literature Review
Emergence, Prevalence, and Recurrence of Depression in Adolescence
A marked increase in the prevalence of depressive disorders continues during
adolescence into young adult life with a female-to-male ratio about 2 to 1 (ACPH, 2000; Angold
& Costello, 2001; Angold, Costello, & Worthman, 1998; Birmaher et al., 1996a; Costello et al.,
2006; Feehan et al., 1993; Fombonne et al., 2001; Goldberg & Goodyer, 2005; Kessler et al.,
2001; Kim-Cohen et al., 2003; Kreuger, 1999; Lewinsohn et al., 1999; Lewinsohn et al., 2000a;
Parker & Roy, 2001; Petersen et al., 1993; Pine et al., 1998; Rutter, 2000; Rutter et al., 2006;
Weller & Weller, 2000). Some studies indicate that increases in depression are linked with
puberty (Biro, 2002; Williamson et al., 1995), particularly in prevalence rates for depression in
girls who transition through puberty (Angold et al., 1998; Williamson et al., 1995). Angold et al.
(1998) indicate that pubertal development measured by Tanner Stages predicted the emergence
of gender difference in depression, where girls reported increased rates of depressive disorder
after Tanner Stage 3. Puberty equates to approximately 13 years for girls and 14 years for boys
living in the US, and there are five pubertal Tanner Stages for both boys and girls (Kreipe &
Kodjo, 2002; Styne & Glaser, 2002). Garber, Robinson, and Valentiner (1997) report that there
was a higher prevalence rate of depression among girls who passed through puberty early (30
percent rate) or late (34 percent), compared to girls passing through puberty on time (22 percent).
Further, Ge et al. (1996) report that early-maturing girls experience more symptoms of anxiety
and depression and seem to be more vulnerable to continuing these emotional problems
compared with the girls maturing on-time or later. The rise in prevalence of depression during
adolescence may also be the result of issues related to the impact of technology, globalization,
conflicts, and changes in the environment, as they affect mental health. The dimensions of
meaningful community participation for adolescents in economic, social, cultural,
environmental, and political life can be disrupted.
One in five adolescents in the community experience mental health problems (Birmaher
et al., 1996b; Health Canada, 2002; Michalak et al., 2002; Lewinsohn, Rohde, & Seeley, 1998;
Schonert-Reichl & Offer, 1992; Waddell et al., 2002). The estimated prevalence of major
depression diagnosed among young people aged 9 to 17 ranges from 5 percent (Shaffer et al.,
1996) to 8.3 percent (Kessler & Walters, 1998). In comparison, in population studies of
depression in childhood, the rates of prevalence range between .4 percent and 2.5 percent
(Birmaher et al., 1996b), while the adult prevalence rate is 5.3 percent (US Department of Health
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