how do adolescents define depression? - cIRcle - University of ...

Chapter II: Literature Review
Perhaps adolescents' conceptions of depression may provide clearer distinctions in connection
with social relationships. Rutter (2000) suggests that altered patterns of interpersonal interactions
bring about further negative experiences that persist over time. Individuals' emotional and
cognitive processing of their interpersonal experiences may effect depressive symptomatology.
Although research points to contextual characteristics associated with adolescent
depression, these factors are not found in the DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000) criteria for depression.
Studies indicate that the following factors can be linked with adolescent depression: the impact
of life events and self-esteem (Ge, Conger, & Elder, 1996; Goodyer, 1990; Lewinsohn et al.,
1994; Steinhausen & Winkler Metzke, 2000), rejection by parents (Rapee, 1997), and stressful
events and strains that reduce social support (Mitchell & Moos,1984). In one study, Larson and
Ham (1993) followed recent major events and daily emotional states in 480 children and
adolescents in grades five to nine. The researchers found that negative events were significant
predictors of negative affect for older students. Post et al. (2003) report that psychosocial
stressors often precipitate sensitization to the affective disorders and "the cause of the malady
must be sought in permanent internal changes" (Kreapelin, 1921, p. 180). Boyce and Essau
(2005) suggest that adverse early experiences can have a lasting effect on the offspring's
reactions to future stresses and vulnerability to depression. However, studies also indicate that
when there is a strong relationship with a confidante or a social support network, life events may
not lead to depression (Brown & Harris, 1978; Wong & Wiest, 1999).
Contextual factors include social changes that may have implications for adolescent
development and adjustment and link with depressive symptomatology in adolescence. Shifts
that alter the organization of social life may present major adaptive challenges and overburden
the coping capacities of some adolescents. For instance, Aneshensel and Sucoff (1996) suggest
that as the neighborhood becomes more threatening, symptoms of depression increase in some
individuals. Further, the role of schools and how they influence individuals, families, and
communities can represent a point of convergence of several of these complexities. The diverse
ways in which social change affects adolescents and how they negotiate in such times are only
now being explored (Petersen, 2000; Takanishi, 2000).
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