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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 109Tamasheq warrior is perhaps the most long-standing of all Orientalist visions ofTamasheq society, renewed through photo-reportages of the last rebellions.What the Zulu and Maasai are to the British colonial stereotype of ‘warriortribes’, the Kel Tamasheq are to the French. This stereotype was constructedeven before colonial conquest. Explorers travelling through Tamasheq country,like Gordon Laing or Alexandrine Tinne, did not live to tell their story. Thosewho did, like Henry Duveryier, were heralded as great heroes for their mere survival.Where in other parts of Africa the murder of European explorers wouldbe avenged by sending in the troops, this did not happen when it came to theKel Tamasheq, in fear of their military power.The Kel Tamasheq put up more than fierce resistance against French conquest.In 1881 the second mission Flatters was totally annihilated by the KelHoggar despite superior French armament. 94 In January 1893, the Bonnier expeditionwas defeated near Timbuktu by the Tengueregif under their amenokalCheiboun. 95 The ensuing reprisals led by Colonel Joffre culminated in a defeatfor the Tamasheq-led coalition under the Tengueregif at Niafunké a few weekslater, but still the Timbuktu area was not pacified. In 1897 a coalition of KelIntessar, Kounta, Ouillimiden and Tengueregif besieged Timbuktu for two daysafter having defeated a French squadron under Lieutenants Chevigné and De LaTour de Saint Ygest. In 1896 Lieutenant Hourst travelled the land of the OuillimidenKel Ataram. He estimated their fighting powers at 20,000 men and thereforethought it unwise to even try to conquer the Aribinda. 96 The Kel Adagh andthe Kel Ajjer, who did not resist conquest militarily, did not, in their ownopinion, surrender either. The Kel Ajjer had merely signed an alliance with theFrench while the Kel Adagh had obeyed religious prescriptions forbidding jihadagainst a stronger military opponent.The French conquest did not end combat between the French and the KelTamasheq. 97 The first to contest French power were their first allies, the KelAjjer in 1913. In 1916, practically all Tamasheq federations revolted againstFrench occupation. In April 1916 the Ouillimiden Kel Ataram under theiramenokal Firhun ag Elinsar rose against the French in the Azawad. They werefollowed by the Logomaten under amenokal Bokar wan Zeidou, and theOuillimiden Kel Denneg under amenokal Elkhurer. In 1917 the Kel Aïr roseunder Kaocen ag Kedda. They were joined by those Ouillimiden Kel Dennegwho had survived their resistance against the French in 1916. 98 Kaocen’s army,well-equipped with field canons and machine guns, first besieged Agadez for9495969798Bissuel, H. 1888.Hureiki, J. 2003.Hourst, L. 1898: 200.Bourgeot, A. 1977.Brock, L. 1990.