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172 CHAPTER 4of his comrade, and thus manages to kill two enemies. His contempt for his ownpossible death helped him in killing the enemy forces. These four concepts aremost important when actual combat is engaged. However, in how to wage warand on whom, other concepts and rules are involved.Aqqa, or the rules of conflictLike everywhere else, warfare is controlled and regulated in Tamasheq society.The regulating principles however, are of a different nature than in most Europeanapproaches. Warfare is not about territorial conquest, but about people,material and honour, with the latter forming the main classifying principle. Afirst form of warfare is aqqa, which Hélène Claudot-Hawad translates as a‘countering movement’ or ‘counter attack’. 38 Aqqa is a raid intended to avengean attack on the honour of the group sustained by one or more of its members. Itis thus the way in which egha is acted out. But aqqa is regulated through ratherstrict rules, the breaking of which does not lead to repaying egha, but in furtherstaining one’s honour itself. Only those who are on equal footing can stainhonour and can therefore be subject to an aqqa counter attack. This excludeswomen, children, slaves and craftsmen. Religious groups should also be excludedfrom an aqqa attack. The principal goal of an aqqa attack is not to killthe enemy, but rather to capture its herds, and possibly its slaves (which couldbe captured but not killed, and who were often released for ransom afterwards).The raid is most successful if the attackers can capture their bounty without afight, but if combat is engaged, then only the enemy’s able-bodied warriorsshould be involved. Civilians (women, children, religious personae and craftsmen)should be left unharmed. A second form of warfare is called tewet. Moreor less the same rules as in aqqa are applied with two main differences: Anaqqa attack should be announced to the adversary while a tewet attack does nothave to be; and the main aim of a tewet attack is not to restore or gain honour,but simply to acquire booty. A third form of warfare is akafal, which has beendescribed as ‘barbarism against barbarism’ by both Claudot-Hawad andBerge. 39 While aqqa and tewet attacks are only carried out against people seenas on an equal footing with the attackers, and are bound to certain rules andgoals, akafal is war against outsiders who are not seen as on equal footing. Inakafal there are no rules, honour is not at stake, only defence and booty.The ifulagen tried to apply concepts of honourable conduct in warfare. Noncombatantsshould not be harmed in the fighting itself, and a minimum of civil38Claudot-Hawad, H. 1993b.39 Ibidem; Berge, G. 2000: 108-141.