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338 EPILOGUEkeep the peace as much as possible. In all 22 arrests were made to bring themurders to justice and to quell Ganda Djio before the spiral of ethnic killingswould start. This did not mean, however, that Touré did not respond militarilyto Bahanga’s offensive. In June, Algeria and Mali agreed to organise communalborder patrols to intercept both the fighters of al-Qaeda in the Islamic Lands ofthe West (the former Algerian GSPC which had formally joined al-Qaeda in2007) and Ibrahim Bahanga. 44 That same month, Touré ordered large-scaleoperations to intercept Bahanga and his men and to chase them out of theirbases in Mount Tigharghar. Colonel Elhajj Gamou led these operations. Histroops did not only include regular soldiers of the Malian Armed Forces.Gamou had formed a militia of former ARLA fighters of imghad origins –ironically called ‘Delta Force’ after the US Special Forces – that was equippedwith tecnical vehicles carrying heavy arms. 45 The motifs behind the formationof this imghad militia and its success in fighting Bahanga’s ATNMC are easy toexplain at the very end of this epilogue at the very end of this book: egha overtheir loss in 1994 and the subsequent humiliation and degradation the Ifoghasforced them into. Gamou’s forces managed to drive Bahanga from his bases,leaving 20 of his fighters dead, but although the operations dealt a heavy blowto the ATNMC, the fight would take another half year. New negotiations inSeptember 2008 led to the release of 44 military hostages and a short period ofcalm, but in December 2008 Bahanga attacked the army base at Nampala. Inretaliation, Gamou’s troops of Malian Armed Forces, largely consisting of KelTamasheq soldiers from outside the Adagh and solely led by Kel Tamasheq andBidân officers; and completed by Gamou’s ‘Delta Force’, decisively oustedBahanga’s ATNMC from their bases in Mount Tigharghar on 21 January2009. 46 As an irony of history, Bahanga’s last fight, which he decisively lost,took place at Toximine, the place where he had battled the Malian Army andwon in 1990. It is less ironic that his defeat was brought about by his formercomrades in arms who had given up the idea of resistance to the Malian state in444546Berschinski, R. 2007.Kone, Ousmane. ‘Accrochage à la base de Tin-Assalek: Le colonel Gamou a matéhier Bahanga et ses troupes’, Malijet, 05/06/2008.http://www.malijet.com/rebellion_au_nord_du_mali/accrochage_a_la_base_de_tin_assalek_le_colonel_gamou_a_mate_hier.html.‘L’armée annonce avoir pris “toutes les bases” du groupe d’Ag Bahanga’, JeuneAfrique, 12/02/2009.http://www.jeuneafrique.com/Article/DEPAFP20090211T172332Z/-defense-armeetouareg-Ibrahim-Ag-Bahanga-L-armee-annonce-avoir-pris--toutes-les-bases--dugroupe-d-Ag-Bahanga--.htmlThe main commanders of the Malian Armed Forces inthe North apart from Colonel Elhajj Gamou were Colonel Sidi Ahmed Kounta, aKounta as his name indicates; Commander Barek of unknown origins; and ColonelTakni of Kel Adagh origins.
EPILOGUE 339return for personal career perspectives and a modest development of theirSahara. Kel Tamasheq politics seem to have entered a phase of real politik.After his defeat, Bahanga managed to escape to Libya where he reportedly stillresides in Tripoli. 47 On 23 January the remaining Idnan warriors within theATNMC gave up the fight through mediation of Idnan politicians. 48 By thenHassan ag Fagaga’s remaining men within the ATNMC had already left. 49 Atthe time of writing, Northern Mali is quiet, but it remains clear that violencemight remain an integral part of Kel Tamasheq politics for the coming times.474849‘Ibrahim Ag Bahanga se retire en Libye’, RFI, 24/02/2009.http://www.rfi.fr/actufr/articles/110/article_78672.asp?keepThis=true&TB_iframe=true&height=350&width=450Takia, Ch., ‘A l’initiative de Ag Erlaf et de Ag Bouya : 120 jeunes Idnanes seretirent de la bande à Bahanga et brûlent leurs armes’, L’Indépendant, 23/<strong>01</strong>/09.http://www.maliweb.net/category.php?NID=39889&intr=AFP. ‘Des centaines de rebelles touareg déposent les armes’, Jeune Afrique, 18/02/2009.http://www.jeuneafrique.com/Article/DEPAFP20090217T125512Z/-paix-armeetouareg-Ibrahim-Ag-Bahanga-Des-centaines-de-rebelles-touareg-deposent-lesarmes.html
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Disputed desert
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Cover illustration: painting of Tam
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ContentsList of photos ixList of ta
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List of photos1.1 Bouyagui ould Abi
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But of course, most important were
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names, which I have found in many d
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urnousCantonCerclecheick (Ar.)Comma
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tayitetefoghessategezéteghereteher
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POLISARIOPSIPSPTSCTIUDPMUMADDUNHCRU
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Movement Date of creation Motivatio
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FM 62 Afaires Politiques: AOF-AEF (
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for his generosity in providing me
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IntroductionWhat is Alfellaga and w
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INTRODUCTION 3On a political map of
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INTRODUCTION 5most anthropologists
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INTRODUCTION 7Free - unfree. The ma
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INTRODUCTION 9tewsit is that of a w
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INTRODUCTION 11ideal of temet and t
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INTRODUCTION 13groups were regroupe
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INTRODUCTION 15formally sworn to se
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INTRODUCTION 17a poem valuable is t
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INTRODUCTION 19Their reports reflec
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INTRODUCTION 21independence led to
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Creating Mali1From the 1960s onward
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Competing nationalismsCREATING MALI
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CREATING MALI 27achieved. In fact,
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CREATING MALI 29Keita and the Seneg
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CREATING MALI 31sions. 17 More impo
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CREATING MALI 33colonial administra
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CREATING MALI 35Koutiala, Bougouni,
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CREATING MALI 37Azawad areas, the f
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CREATING MALI 39tribe in Gourma Rha
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CREATING MALI 41tical party, the Na
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CREATING MALI 43One problem in the
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CREATING MALI 45Of all the officers
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CREATING MALI 47According to Bruce
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CREATING MALI 49arrival he organise
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CREATING MALI 51sion. 79 At its ina
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CREATING MALI 53balance yet. The Na
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CREATING MALI 55the means to stop t
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CREATING MALI 57Moroccan AJM member
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CREATING MALI 59This was perhaps du
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CREATING MALI 61jihad-states and th
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CREATING MALI 63national radio. Eac
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CREATING MALI 65to higher ranks to
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CREATING MALI 67searchers studying
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CREATING MALI 69rule: a means to ta
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CREATING MALI 71rally, were arreste
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CREATING MALI 73policies. To purge
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 75Af
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 77Bu
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 79re
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 81by
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 83so
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 85th
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 89fr
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 91la
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 93Af
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 95re
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 97va
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 99ar
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 101b
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 103S
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 105I
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 107m
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 109T
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 111t
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RACE, STEREOTYPES AND POLITICS 113i
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MALI’S MISSION CIVILISATRICE 115a
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MALI’S MISSION CIVILISATRICE 117I
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MALI’S MISSION CIVILISATRICE 119M
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MALI’S MISSION CIVILISATRICE 121w
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MALI’S MISSION CIVILISATRICE 127w
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MALI’S MISSION CIVILISATRICE 129n
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MALI’S MISSION CIVILISATRICE 131T
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MALI’S MISSION CIVILISATRICE 133t
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MALI’S MISSION CIVILISATRICE 137p
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MALI’S MISSION CIVILISATRICE 139f
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MALI’S MISSION CIVILISATRICE 143F
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MALI’S MISSION CIVILISATRICE 147U
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MALI’S MISSION CIVILISATRICE 149Z
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Alfellaga4Declaration received from
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ALFELLAGA 155Tamasheq society in or
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ALFELLAGA 157- and the others. He w
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ALFELLAGA 159The reasons are numero
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ALFELLAGA 161as we do from the Fren
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ALFELLAGA 163The initial group of a
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ALFELLAGA 165ag Saghid, chief of th
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ALFELLAGA 167southward to Kidal. He
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ALFELLAGA 169cars from the Bamako b
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ALFELLAGA 171attentively, and in th
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ALFELLAGA 173behaviour and warrior
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ALFELLAGA 175was clear to the Malia
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ALFELLAGA 177civilians, whom they v
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ALFELLAGA 179clude extreme obesity
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ALFELLAGA 181diary. In return for h
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ALFELLAGA 183To those who could not
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ALFELLAGA 185cheick, and one of the
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ALFELLAGA 187dead, followed by the
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ALFELLAGA 189portance of Alfellaga
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ALFELLAGA 191well, Diby said, I sha
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REVOLUTION: TESHUMARA AND TANEKRA 1
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Rebellion: Al-Jebha (1990-1996)6On
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 251movement pro
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 253area simulta
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 255traditional
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 257they were sh
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 259on both side
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 261because of s
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 263The ‘confu
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 265We have crea
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 267fledged VIII
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 269The wise men
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 271town of El G
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 273gration in c
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 275organisation
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 277a pilot proj
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 279of a large t
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 281tewsit had f
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 283siten in Nor
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REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 285on the crowd
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Page 319 and 320: REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 293ness; deceit
Page 321 and 322: REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 295many bellah
Page 323 and 324: REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 297origins. Dur
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Page 329 and 330: REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 303and organise
Page 331 and 332: REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 305movie is ins
Page 333 and 334: REBELLION: AL-JEBHA 307cook in. In
Page 335 and 336: CONCLUSIONS 309of a new political e
Page 337 and 338: CONCLUSIONS 311to promote the inter
Page 339 and 340: CONCLUSIONS 313course on ‘the oth
Page 341 and 342: CONCLUSIONS 315the egha of the imgh
Page 343 and 344: EPILOGUE 317from the Gulf and Saudi
Page 345 and 346: EPILOGUE 319The programme first too
Page 347 and 348: EPILOGUE 321In most of Mali the new
Page 349 and 350: EPILOGUE 323based in traditional So
Page 351 and 352: EPILOGUE 325The GSPC is an offshoot
Page 353 and 354: EPILOGUE 327addition, American troo
Page 355 and 356: EPILOGUE 329A further problem in bo
Page 357 and 358: EPILOGUE 331onally sent to the so-c
Page 359 and 360: EPILOGUE 333attention could put pre
Page 361 and 362: EPILOGUE 335Whereas the National Pa
Page 363: EPILOGUE 337besieging the Malian Ar
Page 368 and 369: 342 REFERENCESBERNUS, E. (1981), To
Page 370 and 371: 344 REFERENCESCRAWFORD YOUNG, M. (1
Page 372 and 373: 346 REFERENCESJAMOUS, R. (1981), Ho
Page 374 and 375: 348 REFERENCESNADI, D. (2007), Inst
Page 376 and 377: 350 REFERENCESTRIAUD, J-L. (1986),
Page 378 and 379: 352 REFERENCESS. TAMASHEQ, woman wh
Page 380 and 381: 354 REFERENCESUnpublished manuscrip
Page 382 and 383: 356 REFERENCESKAUFMANN, H. (1964),
Page 385 and 386: IndexAbdelaziz Bouteflika · 147Abd
Page 387 and 388: INDEX 361CRN · 269Dabakar · 202,
Page 389 and 390: INDEX 363Kel Intessar · 37, 39, 49
Page 391 and 392: INDEX 365sattefen · 83, 84, 298, 3
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