Science of Water : Concepts and Applications

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Environmental Biomonitoring, Sampling, and Testing 223 TABLE 8.2 Sample Index of Macroinvertebrates Group One (Sensitive to Pollution) Group Two (Somewhat Sensitive to Pollution) Group Three (Tolerant of Pollution) Stonefl y larva Alderfl y larva Aquatic worm Caddisfl y larva Damselfl y larva Midgefl y larva Water penny larva Cranefl y larva Blackfl y larva Riffl e beetle (adult) Beetle (adult) Leech Mayfl y larva Dragonfl y larva Snails Gilled snail Sowbugs will sampling be accomplished at hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, or even longer intervals? Whatever sampling frequency of sampling is chosen, the entire process will probably continue over a protracted period (i.e., preparing for biological sampling in the fi eld might take several months from the initial planning stages to the time when actual sampling occurs). An experienced freshwater ecologist should be centrally involved in all aspects of planning. The USEPA (2000a) points out that the following issues should be considered in planning the sampling program: 1. Availability of reference conditions for the chosen area 2. Appropriate dates to sample in each season 3. Appropriate sampling gear 4. Availability of laboratory facilities 5. Sample storage 6. Data management 7. Appropriate taxonomic keys, metrics, or measurement for macroinvertebrate analysis 8. Habitat assessment consistency 9. A USGS topographical map 10. Familiarity with safety procedures Once the initial objectives (issues) have been determined and the plan devised, then the sampler can move to other important aspects of the sampling procedure. Along with the items just mentioned, it is imperative that the sampler understand what biological sampling is all about. Biological sampling allows for rapid and general water-quality classifi cation. Rapid classifi cation is possible because quick and easy crosschecking between stream biota and a standard stream biotic index is possible. Biological sampling is typically used for general water-quality classifi cation in the fi eld because sophisticated laboratory apparatus is usually not available. Additionally, stream communities often show a great deal of variation in basic water-quality parameters such as DO, BOD, suspended solids, and coliform bacteria. This occurrence can be observed in eutrophic lakes that may vary from oxygen saturation to less than 0.5 mg/L in a single day, and the concentration of suspended solids may double immediately after a heavy rain. Moreover, the sampling method chosen must take into account the differences in the habits and habitats of the aquatic organisms. Tchobanoglous and Schroeder (1985) explain, “Sampling is one of the most basic and important aspects of water-quality management.” The fi rst step toward accurate measurement of a stream’s water quality is to make sure that the sampling targets those organisms (i.e., macroinvertebrates) that are most likely to provide the information that is being sought. Second, it is essential that representative samples be collected. Laboratory analysis is meaningless if the sample collected is not representative of the aquatic
224 The Science of Water: Concepts and Applications environment being analyzed. As a rule, samples should be taken at many locations, as often as possible. If, for example, you are studying the effects of sewage discharge into a stream, you should fi rst take at least six samples upstream of the discharge, six samples at the discharge, and at least six samples at several points below the discharge for 2–3 days (the six-six sampling rule). If these samples show wide variability, then the number of samples should be increased. On the other hand, if the initial samples exhibit little variation, then a reduction in the number of samples may be appropriate ( Kittrell, 1969). When planning the biological sampling protocol (using biotic indices as the standards) remember that when the sampling is to be conducted in a stream, fi ndings are based on the presence or absence of certain organisms. Thus, the absence of these organisms must be a function of pollution and not of some other ecological problem. The preferred (favored in this text) aquatic group for biological monitoring in streams is the macroinvertebrates, which are usually retained by 30-mesh sieves (pond nets). SAMPLING STATIONS After determining the number of samples to be taken, sampling stations (locations) must be determined. Several factors determine where the sampling stations should be set up. These factors include stream habitat types, the position of the wastewater effl uent outfalls, the stream characteristics, stream developments (dams, bridges, navigation locks, and other man-made structures), the self-purifi cation characteristics of the stream, and the nature of the objectives of the study (Velz, 1970). The stream habitat types used in this discussion are those that are macroinvertebrate assemblage in stream ecosystems. Some combination of these habitats would be sampled in a multi-habitat approach to benthic sampling (Barbour et al., 1997): 1. Cobble (hard substrate)—Cobble is prevalent in the riffl es (and runs), which are a common feature throughout most mountain and piedmont streams. In many high-gradient streams, this habitat type will be dominant. However, riffl es are not a common feature of most coastal or other low-gradient streams. Sample shallow areas with coarse substrates (mixed gravel, cobble, or larger) by holding the bottom of the dip net against the substrate and dislodging organisms by kicking (this is where the “designated kicker,” your sampling partner, comes into play) the substrate for 0.5 m upstream of the net. 2. Snags—Snags and other woody debris that have been submerged for a relatively long period (not recent deadfall) provides excellent colonization habitat. Sample submerged woody debris by jabbing into medium-sized snag material (sticks and branches). The snag habitat may be kicked fi rst to help dislodge organisms, but only after placing the net downstream of the snag. Accumulated woody material in pool areas is considered snag habitat. Large logs should be avoided because they are generally diffi cult to sample adequately. 3. Vegetated banks—When lower banks are submerged and have roots and emergent plants associated with them, they are sampled in a fashion similar to snags. Submerged areas of undercut banks are good habitats to sample. Sample banks with protruding roots and plants by jabbing into the habitat. Bank habitat can be kicked fi rst to help dislodge organisms, but only after placing the net downstream. 4. Submerged macrophytes—Submerged macrophytes are seasonal in their occurrence and may not be a common feature of many streams, particularly those that are high gradient. Sample aquatic plants that are rooted on the bottom of the stream in deep water by drawing the net through the vegetation from the bottom to the surface of the water (maximum of 0.5 m each jab). In shallow water, sample by bumping or jabbing the net along the bottom in the rooted area, avoiding sediments where possible.
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Second Edition THE SCIENCE OF WATER
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Cover Image: Falling Spring at Fall
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Contents Preface ..................
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Contents ix Velocity Head .........
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Contents xi Specifi c Conductance .
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Contents xiii (5) Beetles (Order: C
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Contents xv Chlorine Residual Testi
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Contents xvii Water Filtration Calc
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To the Reader In reading this text,
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1 Introduction When color photograp
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Introduction 3 On second look, we s
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Introduction 5 As mentioned earlier
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Introduction 7 This scream of lost
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Introduction 9 Metcalf & Eddy, Inc.
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12 The Science of Water: Concepts a
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3 Water Hydraulics Anyone who has t
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Water Hydraulics 47 Another relatio
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Water Hydraulics 49 • • 1 ft 3
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Water Hydraulics 51 √ Important P
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Water Hydraulics 53 FIGURE 3.4 Thru
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Water Hydraulics 55 Example 3.8 Pro
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Water Hydraulics 57 FIGURE 3.6 Lami
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Water Hydraulics 59 With regard to
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Water Hydraulics 61 or hydraulic gr
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Water Hydraulics 63 E 1 smaller fl
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Water Hydraulics 65 √ Note: In de
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Water Hydraulics 67 • Cone of dep
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Water Hydraulics 69 • • • •
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Water Hydraulics 71 The Darcy-Weisb
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Water Hydraulics 73 Of course, pipe
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Water Hydraulics 75 In this section
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Water Hydraulics 77 Slope (S) The s
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Water Hydraulics 79 and important c
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Water Hydraulics 81 and the depth o
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Water Hydraulics 83 TYPES OF DIFFER
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Water Hydraulics 85 √ Important P
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Water Hydraulics 87 Meter backpress
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Water Hydraulics 89 VELOCITY FLOWME
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Water Hydraulics 91 The positive-di
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Water Hydraulics 93 Solution: 1200g
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Water Hydraulics 95 Water and Waste
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6 Water Ecology The subject of man
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Water Ecology 157 The environment i
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Water Ecology 159 FIGURE 6.2 Notone
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Water Ecology 161 H 2 O O 2 FIGURE
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Water Ecology 163 FeS FIGURE 6.6 Th
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Water Ecology 165 Algae FIGURE 6.8
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Water Ecology 167 2. Likewise, biom
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Water Ecology 169 Population densit
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Water Ecology 171 succession can be
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Page 222 and 223: Water Ecology 197 FIGURE 6.32 Damse
Page 224: Water Ecology 199 Darwin, C., 1998.
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10 Water Treatment Calculations Gup
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Water Treatment Calculations 363 St
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Water Treatment Calculations 383 g
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Water Treatment Calculations 387 No
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