Science of Water : Concepts and Applications

More documents

Recommendations

Info

Environmental Biomonitoring, Sampling, and Testing 273 3. Remove the ignited solids, fi lter, and support from the furnace, and partially air cool. 4. Cool to room temperature in a desiccator. 5. Weigh ignited solids, fi lter, and support on an analytical balance. 6. Record weight of ignited solids, fi lter, and support. Total Volatile Suspended Solids Calculations To calculate total volatile suspended solids (TVSS) requires the following information: 1. Weights of dry solids, fi lter, and support in grams 2. Weight of ignited solids, fi lter, and support in grams (AC) 1000 mg/g1000 mL/L Tot. Vol. Susp. Solids, mg/L Sample Vol., mL (8.10) where A is the weight of dried solids, fi lter, and support and C the weight of ignited solids, fi lter, and support. Example 8.5 (1.6530 g1.6330 g) 1000 mg/g1000 Tot. Vol. Susp. Solids 100 mL 0.021000,000 mg/L 100 200 mg/L √ Note: Total fi xed suspended solids (TFSS) is the difference between the TVSS and the TSS concentrations. Fixed Suspended Solids Total Suspended SolidsVolatile Suspended Solids (8.11) Example 8.6 Given: Conductivity Testing Total Suspended Solids 202 mg/L Total Volatile Suspended Solids 200 mg/L Total Fixed Suspended Solids, mg/L 202mg/L200mg/L 2mg/ L Conductivity is a measure of the capacity of water to pass an electrical current. Conductivity in water is affected by the presence of inorganic dissolved solids such as chloride, nitrate, sulfate, and phosphate anions (ions that carry a negative charge), or sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron, and aluminum cations (ions that carry a positive charge). Organic compounds like oil, phenol, alcohol, and sugar do not conduct electrical current very well, and therefore have a low conductivity when in water. Conductivity is also affected by temperature: the warmer the water, the higher the conductivity. Conductivity in streams and rivers is affected primarily by the geology of the area through which the water fl ows. Streams that run through areas with granite bedrock tend to have lower conductivity because granite is composed of more inert materials that do not ionize (dissolve into ionic components) when washed into the water. On the other hand, streams that run through areas with clay soils tend to have higher conductivity, because of the presence of materials that ionize when washed into the water. Groundwater infl ows can have the same effects, depending on the bedrock they fl ow through.
274 The Science of Water: Concepts and Applications Discharges to streams can change the conductivity depending on their make-up. A failing sewage system would raise the conductivity because of the presence of chloride, phosphate, and nitrate: an oil spill would lower conductivity. The basic unit of measurement of conductivity is the mho or siemens. Conductivity is measured in micromhos per centimeter (µmhos/cm) or microsiemens per centimeter (µs/cm). Distilled water has conductivity in the range of 0.5–3 µmhos/cm. The conductivity of rivers in the United States generally ranges from 50 to 1500 µmhos/cm. Studies of inland freshwaters indicated that streams supporting good mixed fi sheries have a range between 150 and 500 µmhos/cm. Conductivity outside this range could indicate that the water is not suitable for certain species of fi sh or macroinvertebrates. Industrial waters can range as high as 10,000 µmhos/cm. Sampling, Testing, and Equipment Considerations Conductivity is useful as a general measure of source water quality. Each stream tends to have a relatively constant range of conductivity that, once established, can be used as a baseline for comparison with regular conductivity measurements. Signifi cant changes in conductivity could indicate that a discharge or some other source of pollution has entered a stream. The conductivity test is not routine in potable water treatment, but when performed on source water is a good indicator of contamination. Conductivity readings can also be used to indicate wastewater contamination or saltwater intrusion. √ Note: Distilled water used for potable water analyses at public water supply facilities must have a conductivity of no more than 1 µmho/cm. Conductivity is measured with a probe and a meter. Voltage is applied between two electrodes in a probe immersed in the sample water. The drop in voltage caused by the resistance of the water is used to calculate the conductivity per centimeter. The meter converts the probe measurement to micromhos per centimeter (µmhos/cm) and displays the result for the user. √ Note: Some conductivity meters can also be used to test for total dissolved solids and salinity. The total dissolved solids concentration in milligrams per liter (mg/L) can also be calculated by multiplying the conductivity result by a factor between 0.55 and 0.9, which is empirically determined (see Standard Methods no. 2510). A suitable conductivity meter costs about $350. Meters in this price range should also measure temperature and automatically compensate for temperature in the conductivity reading. Conductivity can be measured in the fi eld or the lab. In most cases, collecting samples in the fi eld and taking them to a lab for testing is probably better. In this way, several teams can collect samples simultaneously. If testing in the fi eld is important, meters designed for fi eld use can be obtained for about the same cost mentioned above. If samples are collected in the fi eld to be measured later, the sample bottle should be a glass or polyethylene bottle that has been washed in phosphate-free detergent and rinsed thoroughly with both tap and distilled water. Factory-prepared Whirl-pak bags may be used. Total Alkalinity As mentioned, alkalinity is defi ned as the ability of water to resist a change in pH when acid is added; it relates to the pH buffering capacity of the water. Almost all natural waters have some alkalinity. These alkaline compounds in the water such as bicarbonates (baking soda is one type), carbonates, and hydroxides remove H + ions and lower the acidity of the water (which means increased pH). They usually do this by combining with the H + ions to make new compounds. Without this acid-neutralizing capacity, any acid added to a stream would cause an immediate change in the pH. Measuring alkalinity is important in determining a stream’s ability to neutralize acidic pollution from rainfall or wastewater—one of the best measures of the sensitivity of the stream to acid inputs.
Page 2:
Second Edition THE SCIENCE OF WATER
Page 5 and 6:
Cover Image: Falling Spring at Fall
Page 8 and 9:
Contents Preface ..................
Page 10 and 11:
Contents ix Velocity Head .........
Page 12 and 13:
Contents xi Specifi c Conductance .
Page 14 and 15:
Contents xiii (5) Beetles (Order: C
Page 16 and 17:
Contents xv Chlorine Residual Testi
Page 18:
Contents xvii Water Filtration Calc
Page 22:
To the Reader In reading this text,
Page 26 and 27:
1 Introduction When color photograp
Page 28 and 29:
Introduction 3 On second look, we s
Page 30 and 31:
Introduction 5 As mentioned earlier
Page 32 and 33:
Introduction 7 This scream of lost
Page 34:
Introduction 9 Metcalf & Eddy, Inc.
Page 37 and 38:
12 The Science of Water: Concepts a
Page 39 and 40:
Page 41 and 42:
Page 43 and 44:
Page 45 and 46:
Page 47 and 48:
Page 49 and 50:
Page 51 and 52:
Page 53 and 54:
Page 55 and 56:
Page 57 and 58:
Page 59 and 60:
Page 61 and 62:
Page 63 and 64:
Page 65 and 66:
Page 67 and 68:
Page 70 and 71:
3 Water Hydraulics Anyone who has t
Page 72 and 73:
Water Hydraulics 47 Another relatio
Page 74 and 75:
Water Hydraulics 49 • • 1 ft 3
Page 76 and 77:
Water Hydraulics 51 √ Important P
Page 78 and 79:
Water Hydraulics 53 FIGURE 3.4 Thru
Page 80 and 81:
Water Hydraulics 55 Example 3.8 Pro
Page 82 and 83:
Water Hydraulics 57 FIGURE 3.6 Lami
Page 84 and 85:
Water Hydraulics 59 With regard to
Page 86 and 87:
Water Hydraulics 61 or hydraulic gr
Page 88 and 89:
Water Hydraulics 63 E 1 smaller fl
Page 90 and 91:
Water Hydraulics 65 √ Note: In de
Page 92 and 93:
Water Hydraulics 67 • Cone of dep
Page 94 and 95:
Water Hydraulics 69 • • • •
Page 96 and 97:
Water Hydraulics 71 The Darcy-Weisb
Page 98 and 99:
Water Hydraulics 73 Of course, pipe
Page 100 and 101:
Water Hydraulics 75 In this section
Page 102 and 103:
Water Hydraulics 77 Slope (S) The s
Page 104 and 105:
Water Hydraulics 79 and important c
Page 106 and 107:
Water Hydraulics 81 and the depth o
Page 108 and 109:
Water Hydraulics 83 TYPES OF DIFFER
Page 110 and 111:
Water Hydraulics 85 √ Important P
Page 112 and 113:
Water Hydraulics 87 Meter backpress
Page 114 and 115:
Water Hydraulics 89 VELOCITY FLOWME
Page 116 and 117:
Water Hydraulics 91 The positive-di
Page 118 and 119:
Water Hydraulics 93 Solution: 1200g
Page 120:
Water Hydraulics 95 Water and Waste
Page 123 and 124:
Page 125 and 126:
100 The Science of Water: Concepts
Page 127 and 128:
Page 129 and 130:
Page 131 and 132:
Page 133 and 134:
Page 135 and 136:
Page 137 and 138:
Page 139 and 140:
Page 141 and 142:
Page 143 and 144:
Page 145 and 146:
Page 147 and 148:
Page 149 and 150:
Page 151 and 152:
Page 153 and 154:
Page 155 and 156:
Page 157 and 158:
Page 159 and 160:
Page 161 and 162:
Page 163 and 164:
Page 165 and 166:
Page 167 and 168:
Page 169 and 170:
Page 171 and 172:
Page 173 and 174:
Page 175 and 176:
Page 177 and 178:
Page 180 and 181:
6 Water Ecology The subject of man
Page 182 and 183:
Water Ecology 157 The environment i
Page 184 and 185:
Water Ecology 159 FIGURE 6.2 Notone
Page 186 and 187:
Water Ecology 161 H 2 O O 2 FIGURE
Page 188 and 189:
Water Ecology 163 FeS FIGURE 6.6 Th
Page 190 and 191:
Water Ecology 165 Algae FIGURE 6.8
Page 192 and 193:
Water Ecology 167 2. Likewise, biom
Page 194 and 195:
Water Ecology 169 Population densit
Page 196 and 197:
Water Ecology 171 succession can be
Page 198 and 199:
Water Ecology 173 dark winter month
Page 200 and 201:
Water Ecology 175 In rain events wh
Page 202 and 203:
Water Ecology 177 long profi le, cr
Page 204 and 205:
Water Ecology 179 THE FLOODPLAIN A
Page 206 and 207:
Water Ecology 181 It is important t
Page 208 and 209:
Water Ecology 183 Specifi c Adaptat
Page 210 and 211:
Water Ecology 185 serve to indicate
Page 212 and 213:
Water Ecology 187 UNITS OF ORGANIZA
Page 214 and 215:
Water Ecology 189 FIGURE 6.20 Stone
Page 216 and 217:
Water Ecology 191 FIGURE 6.22 Midge
Page 218 and 219:
Water Ecology 193 FIGURE 6.25 Riffl
Page 220 and 221:
Water Ecology 195 They push their m
Page 222 and 223:
Water Ecology 197 FIGURE 6.32 Damse
Page 224:
Water Ecology 199 Darwin, C., 1998.
Page 227 and 228:
Page 229 and 230:
Page 231 and 232:
Page 233 and 234:
Page 235 and 236:
Page 237 and 238:
Page 239 and 240:
Page 241 and 242:
Page 243 and 244:
Page 245 and 246:
Page 247 and 248: 222 The Science of Water: Concepts
Page 297: 272 The Science of Water: Concepts
Page 350 and 351:
10 Water Treatment Calculations Gup
Page 352 and 353:
Water Treatment Calculations 327 We
Page 354 and 355:
Water Treatment Calculations 329 Th
Page 356 and 357:
Page 358 and 359:
Water Treatment Calculations 333 Ex
Page 360 and 361:
Water Treatment Calculations 335 me
Page 362 and 363:
Water Treatment Calculations 337 Fo
Page 364 and 365:
Page 366 and 367:
Water Treatment Calculations 341 So
Page 368 and 369:
Water Treatment Calculations 343 No
Page 370 and 371:
Page 372 and 373:
Page 374 and 375:
Water Treatment Calculations 349 In
Page 376 and 377:
Page 378 and 379:
Page 380 and 381:
Page 382 and 383:
Page 384 and 385:
Page 386 and 387:
Page 388 and 389:
Water Treatment Calculations 363 St
Page 390 and 391:
Water Treatment Calculations 365 WA
Page 392 and 393:
Water Treatment Calculations 367 St
Page 394 and 395:
Page 396 and 397:
Page 398 and 399:
Page 400 and 401:
Page 402 and 403:
Page 404 and 405:
Water Treatment Calculations 379 Se
Page 406 and 407:
Water Treatment Calculations 381 µ
Page 408 and 409:
Water Treatment Calculations 383 g
Page 410 and 411:
Page 412 and 413:
Water Treatment Calculations 387 No
Page 414 and 415:
Page 416 and 417:
Page 418 and 419:
Page 420 and 421:
Water Treatment Calculations 395 Ca
Page 422 and 423:
Page 424:
Water Treatment Calculations 399 Mo
Page 427 and 428:
Page 429 and 430:
Page 431 and 432:
Page 433 and 434:
Page 435 and 436:
Page 437 and 438:
Page 439 and 440:
Page 441 and 442:
Page 443 and 444:
Page 445 and 446:
Page 447:
show all

Science of Water : Concepts and Applications

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?