50<strong>World</strong> Agr<strong>of</strong>orestry <strong>in</strong>to the Futuredevelopment – and this is perhaps the mostexact<strong>in</strong>g scientific <strong>challenge</strong> <strong>of</strong> all. <strong>The</strong>obvious danger <strong>in</strong> any broad approach,however, is that <strong>of</strong> work<strong>in</strong>g on absolutelyeveryth<strong>in</strong>g and los<strong>in</strong>g all useful focus. Ecosystemecology is helpful <strong>in</strong> this regard, forit has become clear that, whatever the level<strong>of</strong> complexity, there are always some features<strong>of</strong> the system that are more <strong>in</strong>fluential<strong>in</strong> its regulation than others. This existence<strong>of</strong> keystone organisms and processes isparticularly good news for agr<strong>of</strong>oresters,because ask<strong>in</strong>g the question ‘what is therole <strong>of</strong> the tree(s)?’ <strong>in</strong> any given ecosystem isunlikely to be distant from ask<strong>in</strong>g ‘how <strong>does</strong>this system work?’ Likewise, the discipl<strong>in</strong>es<strong>of</strong> anthropology and sociology draw uponknowledge <strong>of</strong> repeated patterns <strong>in</strong> socialbehaviour and actions that can be l<strong>in</strong>ked tobio-political processes. <strong>The</strong> key for the resourcemanagement scientist <strong>in</strong> agriculturalresearch is thus to identify key features <strong>of</strong>the system dur<strong>in</strong>g the diagnostic phase <strong>of</strong>a research programme, and to derive appropriateentry po<strong>in</strong>ts to the research thatwill enable manipulation <strong>of</strong> these keystoneorganisms, processes or properties.In seek<strong>in</strong>g to wade <strong>in</strong> the ‘bathwater’ <strong>of</strong>holistic science we should not, however,cast out the ‘baby’ <strong>of</strong> reductionism. Asmentioned above, Stephen Jay Gouldargued forcefully throughout his career fora wider and less mechanistic concept <strong>of</strong>what constitutes the scientific method thanmere reductionist experimentation. Yet, <strong>in</strong>so do<strong>in</strong>g, he also said: “Only a fool or anenemy <strong>of</strong> science could possibly deny theextraord<strong>in</strong>ary power and achievements <strong>of</strong>reductionism…” (Gould 2004). It is thussurely not a question <strong>of</strong> either reductionismor holism, but the <strong>challenge</strong> <strong>of</strong> when and<strong>in</strong> what manner to employ the power <strong>of</strong>the former with<strong>in</strong> a framework <strong>of</strong> the latter.As outl<strong>in</strong>ed above, the tools to assist suchchoices are already part <strong>of</strong> the <strong>World</strong> Agr<strong>of</strong>orestryCentre’s armoury – what rema<strong>in</strong>s ishow we choose to use them.AcknowledgementsOur grateful thanks go to Antonia Okon<strong>of</strong>or her assistance beyond the call <strong>of</strong> duty<strong>in</strong> the preparation <strong>of</strong> this chapter.ReferencesAlbrecht, A. and S.T. Kandji 2003. Carbonsequestration <strong>in</strong> tropical agr<strong>of</strong>orestrysystems. Agriculture, Ecosystems andEnvironment 99: 15–27.Amman, R. and M. Kuhl 1998. In situ methodsfor assessment <strong>of</strong> microorganisms andtheir activities. Current Op<strong>in</strong>ion <strong>in</strong> Microbiology1: 352–358.Amman, R. and W. Ludwig 2000. RibosomalRNA-targeted nucleic acid probes forstudies <strong>in</strong> microbial ecology. FEMS MicrobiologyReviews 24: 555–565.Bationo, A. (ed) 2004. Manag<strong>in</strong>g Nutrient Cyclesto Susta<strong>in</strong> Soil Fertility <strong>in</strong> Sub-SaharanAfrica. African Academy <strong>of</strong> Science Publishers,Nairobi, Kenya.Bationo, A., S.P. Wani, C.L. Bielders, P.L.G. Vlekand A.U. Mokwunye 1999. Crop residueand fertilizer management to improvesoil organic carbon content, soil qualityand productivity <strong>in</strong> the desert marg<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong>West Africa. In: Lal, R., J.M. Kimble andB.A.Stewart (eds) Global Climate Changeand Tropical Ecosystems. Advances <strong>in</strong> SoilScience. CRC Press, Florida, USA.Baidu-Forson, J. and A. Bationo 1992. Aneconomic evaluation <strong>of</strong> a long-termexperiment on phosphorus and manureamendments to sandy Sahelian soils us<strong>in</strong>ga stochastic dom<strong>in</strong>ance model. FertilizerResearch 33: 193–202.Bergstrom, L. and H. Kirchman (eds) 1998.Carbon and Nutrient Dynamics <strong>in</strong> Naturaland Agricultural Tropical Ecosystems. CABInternational, Wall<strong>in</strong>gford, UK.Bossio, D., M.S. Girvan, L. Verchot, J. Bullimore,T. Borelli, A. Albrecht, K.M. Scow, A.S.Ball, J.N. Pretty and A.M. Osborn 2005.Soil microbial community responseto land use change <strong>in</strong> an agriculturallandscape <strong>of</strong> western Kenya. MicrobialEcology 49: 50–62Buresh, R.J., P.A. Sanchez and F. Calhoun 1997.Replenish<strong>in</strong>g Soil Fertility <strong>in</strong> Africa. SoilScience Society <strong>of</strong> America, Madison, WI,USA.Campbell, B.M. and J.A. Sayer (eds) 2003. IntegratedNatural Resource Management:L<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g Productivity, the Environment andDevelopment. CAB International, Wall<strong>in</strong>gford,UK.Crowley, E.L. and S.E. Carter 2000. Agrarianchange and the chang<strong>in</strong>g relationshipsbetween toil and soil <strong>in</strong> Maragoli, westernKenya (1900–1994). Human Ecology 28:383–414.FARA 2003. Secur<strong>in</strong>g the Future for Africa’sChildren: Build<strong>in</strong>g susta<strong>in</strong>able livelihoodsthrough research for <strong>in</strong>tegrated agriculturalresearch for development. Forum for AgriculturalResearch <strong>in</strong> Africa, Accra, Ghana.Feller, C., A. Albrecht, E. Balnchart, Y.M. Cabidoche,T. Chevallier, C. Hartmann, V.Eschenbrenner, M.C. Larre-Larrouy andJ.F. Ndandou 2001. Soil organic carbonsequestration <strong>in</strong> tropical areas. Generalconsiderations and analysis <strong>of</strong> someedaphic determ<strong>in</strong>ants for Lesser Antillessoils. Nutrient Cycl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Agroecosystems61: 19–31.German, L. 2003. Beyond the Farm: A new lookat livelihood constra<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>in</strong> the highlands<strong>of</strong> eastern Africa. African Highlands InitiativeBrief A2. <strong>World</strong> Agr<strong>of</strong>orestry Centre,Nairobi, Kenya.Gichuru, M.P., A. Bationo, M.A. Bekunda, H.C.Goma, P.L. Mafongoya, D.N. Mugendi,H.K. Murwira, S.M. Nandwa, P. Nyathiand M.J. Swift (eds) 2003. Soil Fertility
Chapter 5: Confront<strong>in</strong>g land degradation <strong>in</strong> Africa51Management <strong>in</strong> Africa: a Regional Perspective.African Academy <strong>of</strong> Sciences,Nairobi, Kenya.Gould, S.J. 2000. Wonderful Life: <strong>The</strong> BurgessShale and the Nature <strong>of</strong> History. V<strong>in</strong>tage,London, UK.Gould, S.J. 2004. <strong>The</strong> Hedgehog, the Fox and theMagister’s Pox: Mend<strong>in</strong>g and M<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g theGap Between Science and the Humanities.V<strong>in</strong>tage, London, UK.Izac, A-M.N. and P.A. Sanchez 2001. Towards anatural resource management paradigm for<strong>in</strong>ternational agriculture: the example <strong>of</strong>agr<strong>of</strong>orestry research. Agricultural Systems69: 5–25.Izac, A-M.N. and M.J. Swift 1994. On agriculturalsusta<strong>in</strong>ability and its measurement <strong>in</strong>small scale farm<strong>in</strong>g systems <strong>in</strong> sub-SaharanAfrica. Ecological Economics 11: 105–125.Medawar, P. 1982. Pluto’s Republic. Oxford UniversityPress, Oxford, UK.Palm, C.A., Izac, A-M.N. and S.A. Vosti 2000.Procedural Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Characterization.Technical Report. <strong>World</strong> Agr<strong>of</strong>orestryCentre: Nairobi, Kenya. http://www.asb.cgiar.org/Palm, C.A., K.E. Giller, P.L. Mafongoya and M.J.Swift 2001. Management <strong>of</strong> organic matter<strong>in</strong> the tropics: translat<strong>in</strong>g theory <strong>in</strong>to practice.Nutrient Cycl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Agroecosystems61: 63–75.Palm, C.A., C.N. Gachengo, R.J. Delve, G.Cadisch and K.E. Giller 2002. Organic<strong>in</strong>puts for soil fertility management <strong>in</strong>tropical agroecosystems: application <strong>of</strong> anorganic database. Agriculture, Ecosystemsand Environment 83: 27–42.Palm, C.A., S.A. Vosti, P.A. Sanchez and P.J. Ericksen(eds) 2005. Slash and Burn: <strong>The</strong> Searchfor Alternatives. Columbia University Press,New York, USA.Ra<strong>in</strong>tree, J.B. 1987. D & D User’s manual: AnIntroduction to Agr<strong>of</strong>orestry Diagnosis andDesign. <strong>World</strong> Agr<strong>of</strong>orestry Centre, Nairobi,Kenya.Sanchez, P.A. 1994. Tropical soil fertility research:towards the second paradigm. Transactions<strong>of</strong> the 15th <strong>World</strong> Congress <strong>of</strong> Soil Science,10–16 July, Acapulco, Mexico.Sayer, J. and B.M. Campbell 2001. Researchto <strong>in</strong>tegrate productivity enhancement,environmental protection, and humandevelopment. Conservation Ecology 15(2)available onl<strong>in</strong>e at: http://www.consecol.org/vol5/iss2/art1Shepherd, K.D. and M.G. Walsh 2002. Development<strong>of</strong> reflectance spectral libraries for charcterisation<strong>of</strong> soil properties. Soil ScienceSociety <strong>of</strong> America Journal 66: 988–998.Schroth, G. and F.L. S<strong>in</strong>clair 2003. Trees, Cropsand Soil Fertility: Concepts and ResearchMethods. CAB International, Wall<strong>in</strong>gford,UK.Stroud, A. 2001. End <strong>of</strong> Phase I (1995–1997). AfricanHighlands Initiative Technical Report.<strong>World</strong> Agr<strong>of</strong>orestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya.Stroud, A. and R. Khandelwal 2003. In Search<strong>of</strong> Substance: an analytical review <strong>of</strong> conceptsand approaches <strong>in</strong> natural resourcemanagement <strong>in</strong> sub-Saharan Africa. AHIWork<strong>in</strong>g Paper No 20. African HighlandsInitiative, Nairobi, Kenya.Swift, M.J., A-M.N. Izac, and M.N. van Noordwijk2005. Biodiversity and ecosystemservices <strong>in</strong> agricultural landscapes – are weask<strong>in</strong>g the right questions? Agriculture, Ecosystemsand Environment 104: 113–134.Swift, M.J. 1998. Towards the second paradigm:<strong>in</strong>tegrated biological management <strong>of</strong> soil.In: Siqueira, J.O., F.M.S. Moreira, A.S.Lopes, L.G.R. Guilherme, V. Faqu<strong>in</strong>, A.E.Furt<strong>in</strong>i Neto and J.G. Carvalho (eds) SoilFertility, Soil Biology and Plant NutritionInterrelationships. Sociedade Brasileira deCiencia do Solo/Universidade Federal deLavras/Departamento de Ciencia do Solo(SBCS/UFLA/DCS), Lavras, Brazil.Swift, M.J. 1999. Integrat<strong>in</strong>g soils, systems andsociety. Nature and Resources 35: 12–20.Swift, M.J. and C.A. Palm 2000. Soil fertility as anecosystem concept: a paradigm lost andrega<strong>in</strong>ed? Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> the InternationalUnion for Soil Sciences Symposium, April2000, Bangkok, Thailand.Tian, G., F. Ishida and D. Keat<strong>in</strong>ge 2001. Susta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>gSoil Fertility <strong>in</strong> West Africa. Soil ScienceSociety <strong>of</strong> America, Madison, USA.Tomich, T.P., A. Cattaneo, S. Chater, J.H. Geist, J.Gockowski D. Kamowitz, E.F. Lamb<strong>in</strong>, J.Lewis, O. Ndoye, C.A. Palm, F. Stolle, W.D.Sunderl<strong>in</strong>, J.F. Valemt<strong>in</strong>, M. van Noordwijkand S.A. Vosti 2005. In: Palm, C.A., S.A.Vosti, P.A. Sanchez and P.J. Ericksen (eds)Slash and Burn: the Search for Alternatives.Columbia University Press, New York,USA.TSBF/ICRAF 2002. Soil Fertility Degradation<strong>in</strong> sub-Saharan Agriculture: Leverag<strong>in</strong>glast<strong>in</strong>g solutions to a long-term problem.Conclusions from a workshop held at theRockefeller Foundation Bellagio Study andConference Centre, 4–8 March, TropicalSoil Biology and Fertility Programme,Nairobi, Kenya.Vanlauwe, B., J. Diels, N. Sang<strong>in</strong>ga and R.Merckx 2002. Integrated Plant NutrientManagement <strong>in</strong> Sub-Saharan Africa: fromConcept to Practice. CAB International,Wall<strong>in</strong>gford, UK.Vanlauwe, B., C.A. Palm, H.K. Murwira and R.Merckx 2003. Organic resource management<strong>in</strong> sub-Saharan Africa: validation <strong>of</strong>a residue quality-driven decision supportsystem. Agronomie 22: 839–846.van Noordwijk, M., J. Poulsen and P.J. Ericksen2004. Quantify<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong>f-site effects <strong>of</strong> landuse change: filters, flows, and fallacies.Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment104: 19–34.Young, A. 1997. Agr<strong>of</strong>orestry for Soil Management(2nd Edition). CAB International,Wall<strong>in</strong>gford, UK and <strong>World</strong> Agr<strong>of</strong>orestryCentre, Nairobi, Kenya.
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CitationGarrity, D., A. Okono, M. G
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Enhancing Environmental ServicesCha
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viiiWorld Agroforestry into the Fut
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Keywords:Agroforestry, buffering wa
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Chapter 12: Watershed functions in
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Chapter 12: Watershed functions in
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“Agroforestry can and does playa
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Chapter 19: Can e-learning support
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Chapter 19: Can e-learning support
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Chapter 20Strengthening Institution
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Author ContactsFahmudin Agusisri@in
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Acronyms and AbbreviationsACIARAFTP
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CreditsFront cover photo: Karen Rob
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