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Table 3. Gini Decomposition by Income Source: Mexico National SampleIncome Source(1)Sharein TotalIncome(S)(2)IncomeSourceGini(G)(3)Gini(4)Share inTotal-IncomeInequality(5)% Changein Ginifroma 10%Changein IncomeGovernmentTransfers.045 0.79 0.29 .017 -0.280U.S. Remittances .140 0.95 0.78 .169 0.281Internal Remittances .020 0.96 0.36 .011 -0.089Family production .288 1.00 0.75 .350 0.630Agriculture wages .117 0.82 0.37 .057 -0.601Non-agriculturewages.390 0.80 0.78 .396 0.061Total Income 1.000 0.61 1.00 1.000Source: Estimates from Mexico National Rural Household Survey 2003.N = 1782 households. All incomes are per capita.Migrant remittances are unequally distributed across rural households(Column 2). The source Ginis for international and internal remittances aresimilar: 0.95 and 0.96, respectively. 4As indicated earlier, a high source Gini (G k) does not imply that anincome source has an unequalizing effect on total-income inequality. Anincome source may be unequally distributed yet favor the poor. This isthe case for internal migrant remittances. The Gini correlation betweeninternal remittances and the distribution of total per-capita income (R k) isonly 0.36, comparable to that of agricultural wages. Because of the lowGini correlation between internal-migrant remittances and total-incomerankings, the percentage contribution of internal remittances to inequality(1.1 percent) is smaller than the percentage contribution to income (2.0percent). Thus, internal remittances have a slight equalizing effect on thedistribution of total rural income. A 10% increase in internal remittances,other things being equal, reduces the Gini coefficient of total income by0.1 percent.112The Gini correlation between international migrant remittances and totalincome rankings is much higher (R=0.78). Because of this, internationalremittances have an unequalizing effect on rural incomes; a 10-percent4These source Ginis are high in part because they incluye zero remittances for some households.
increase in remittances from migrants abroad increases the Gini coefficientby 0.3 percent.Government transfers are unequally distributed (G k= 0.79). However, theGini correlation between transfers and total income is low (R k= 0.29),indicating that transfers favor the poor more than any other incomesource. Other things being equal, a 10-percent increase in governmenttransfers is associated with a 0.3-percent decrease in the Gini coefficientof total income. In rural Mexico, these transfers include decoupled incomepayments to basic grain producers, under the PROCAMPO program, aswell as needs-based transfers under PROGRESA. 5 Agricultural wages arethe largest income equalizers in rural Mexico, while income from familyproduction activities has the largest positive effect on inequality.Table 4a. Gini Decomposition by Income Source: High Migration(West–Center) RegionIncome Source(1)Sharein TotalIncome(S)(2)IncomeSourceGini(G)(3)GiniCorrelationwith TotalIncomeRankings( R)(4)Share inTotal-IncomeInequality(5)% Changein Ginifroma 10%Changein IncomeSourceGovernmentTransfers0.047 0.84 0.25 0.019 -0.279U.S. Remittances 0.159 0.87 0.50 0.133 -0.263Internal Remittances 0.009 0.98 0.42 0.007 -0.019Family production 0.231 1.00 0.72 0.320 0.880Agriculture wages 0.110 0.83 0.20 0.035 -0.746Non-agriculturewages0.445 0.75 0.76 0.487 0.428Total Income 1.000 0.52 1.00 1.000Source: Estimates from Mexico National Rural Household Survey 2003.N = 346 households. All incomes are per capita.1135PROCAMPO was instituted in the context of a phase-out of price guarantees to basic grainproducers. It represented a shift from price based support measures to direct income payments.PROGRESA provides payments to poor rural households, linked to enrollment of children inschools and local clinics.
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The opinions expressed in the repor
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Table of ContentsForeword1 Migratio
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Foreword
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UN recorded that 61 million migrant
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about this and other programmes. Se
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Introduction
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overseas ethnic markets; and the wa
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labor migration. This narrower topi
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narrowing income inequalities withi
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and 2004 has increased the urban po
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Connecting Internaland Internationa
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it comes to questions of migration
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internal and international migratio
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the larger cities. British ships we
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states. At present, as part of our
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36and one on international migratio
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perspective 3 that gives methodolog
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commercial, industrial and service
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taken place in migration flows. The
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to what was left of the original en
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sought refuge in Lima. It was not p
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husband who sought refuge and work
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that take place between migrants an
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to the flows of goods, resources an
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migration and close to Huancayo) or
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In some cases, families would regul
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Furthermore, the precise compositio
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This suggests that, instead of aimi
Page 64 and 65: Brynes, D.M.2003 Driving the State:
Page 66 and 67: 1984 Miners, Peasants and Entrepren
Page 68 and 69: Werbner, P.1990 The Migration Proce
Page 70 and 71: Genealogy 1: Jiménez Family in 197
Page 72 and 73: Since the 1990s, there has been a b
Page 74 and 75: migrant receiving areas, 2 but focu
Page 76 and 77: well as discussing some of the cons
Page 78 and 79: carried to Ghana by migrants. 40 pe
Page 80 and 81: Table 2. Cost (in Euro) of Formal a
Page 82 and 83: home countries, for example, throug
Page 84 and 85: These insurance events can constitu
Page 86 and 87: Having people collect similar data
Page 88 and 89: people they knew. In fact, some of
Page 90 and 91: For migration research, this means
Page 92 and 93: ReferencesAppadurai, A.1996 Moderni
Page 94 and 95: Glick Schiller, N., and G. Fouron19
Page 96 and 97: Marcus, G.1995 “Ethnography in/of
Page 98 and 99: Portes, A., and J. DeWind2004 “A
Page 100 and 101: Stark, O., and D. Bloom1985 “The
Page 102 and 103: AppendixTable A.1. Two-country Tran
Page 104 and 105: initially entails high costs and ri
Page 106 and 107: To our knowledge, no study has esti
Page 108 and 109: 2.1 Remittances and Income in Rural
Page 110 and 111: with its neat correspondence to the
Page 112 and 113: let z > 0 denote the predetermined
Page 116 and 117: Table 4b. Gini Decomposition by Inc
Page 118 and 119: 3.2 Effects of Migrant Remittances
Page 120 and 121: 4. ConclusionsOur findings using na
Page 122 and 123: Knowles, J.C., and R.B. Anker1981
Page 124 and 125: Taylor, J.E.1992 “Remittances and
Page 126 and 127: 124Table 2. Rural Mexico Household
Page 128 and 129: Central Region45Percentage of Villa
Page 130 and 131: 128Figure 3. Relationship between P
Page 133 and 134: 7Labor Market Flooding? Migrant Des
Page 135 and 136: Reibel (1997); David Card (2001); a
Page 137 and 138: The net immigration rate can be tak
Page 139 and 140: is S 0. It establishes an equilibri
Page 141 and 142: consequence a highly elastic supply
Page 143 and 144: in the populous fourteen states of
Page 145 and 146: out were both at work in this case
Page 147 and 148: Figure 7 identifies what we call
Page 149 and 150: Figure 9. Total Net In-Migration an
Page 151 and 152: Figure 10. Dynamic Economy ModelFig
Page 153 and 154: 6. ConclusionThe dynamic and open e
Page 155 and 156: ReferencesAbowd, J.M., and R. Freem
Page 157 and 158: 1999 “Historical perspectives on
Page 159 and 160: Hatton, T., and J.G. Williamson1998
Page 161: White, M.J. and Y. Imai1994 “The
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seasonal basis, to areas with more
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for agricultural labor were 15 and
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3. Why People MoveThe decision to m
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producers are facing heavy losses a
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in Mumbai, which capitalizes on peo
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In conclusion, migration can bring
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is also being experienced in many r
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ReferencesBal Kumar, K.C.2003 “Mi
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Lipton, M.1980 “Migration from ru
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Shylendra, H.S., and P. Thomas1995
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182Able-bodied men.Women migrateonl
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Majority of (ST)Baiga and Ghondsmig
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Single caste villageof (OBC) Dhimar
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9A Socio-Cultural Perspective on Mi
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of households reported having at le
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Drawing on these perspectives, I ar
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migration tend to imitate the behav
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What is presented below is therefor
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ate of exchange and was thus sent t
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which was an important consideratio
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some migrants had started chitties,
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The extended family constituted a c
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much individuals had “locked up i
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edistribution were enforced through
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and the definition of status in eac
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perceived, the status-seeking activ
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Engelbrektsson, U.1978 The force of
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Parry, J. and M. Bloch1989 “Intro
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10Migrant Workers’ Remittances an
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in labor migration emerged after, a
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husband and wife, four daughters an
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(Table 3). In the central and weste
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Table 5. Composition of Rural House
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Figure 3. Rural households’ Net I
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schistosomiasis, etc. This decline
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of them deposit the money in a bank
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to train new rural migrants in the
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Figure 4. Per Capita Temittance in
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ReferencesBai Nansheng et al.2002
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Lu Mai et al.2002 “Zhongguo nongc
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Xinhuanet2002 “Woguo Zhongxibu la
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agriculture (Cook 1999), producing
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evenue (MR) minus the marginal cost
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Before reform, the annual quota of
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Table 2 Regional Distribution of In
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Figure 3. Sources of China’s Econ
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migration are removed, all wage and
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urban-biased policies persisted, pr
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eform. Under the hukou system, Chin
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The institutional barriers faced by
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ecause of the rapid migration of th
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Migrant workers have hardly any opp
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ReferencesAu, Chun-Chung, and Verno
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Lin, Justin, Gewei Wang, and Yaohui
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12International Migration and Devel
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2. BackgroundThe recent rise in int
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of remittances: self-employment, a
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Given the size of recent emigration
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5. Remittances: An OverviewTable 1
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interpret. Some of it may be caused
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8. A Decision to Repatriate MoneyIn
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emittances in the year prior to the
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fourth one, Xiamen, is in Fujian Pr
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ReferencesAdelman, I., J.E. Taylor,
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Massey, D.1988 “International mig
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AppendixTable 1. Village-Level Remi
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Table 4. Logistic Regression Models
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13Remittances in the Latin American
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to anti-money laundering and suspic
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Finally, mulas may be sporadic trav
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has left from countries in Western
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Table 2: Remittances and Key Econom
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Source: National Money Transmitters
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One way this redistributive effect
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Managua reported having a relative
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America have a higher rate of havin
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Table 9 Frequency of Immigrant Trav
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Guyana offers an interesting exampl
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In addition to exports of these goo
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Hemisphere. Figure 7 refers to the
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alternatives. Five years ago, it wa
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concentration is pronounced, innova
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emittance recipients have a higher
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AppendixData Methodology on Pricing
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Fagen, P., and M. Bump2005 “Remit
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2003 Receptores de remesas en Ecuad
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14A Framework for Linking and Compa
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to jobs, savings, and networks that
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were expanding. That “flooding”
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ural families to repay debts, satis
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ut case studies, including that of
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would do well to examine how variou
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Carter and Sutch challenge the argu
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networks combine internal and inter
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4. Policy ImplicationsWhat implicat
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government should improve migrant w
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challenge for development practitio
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community members could help to cla
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itself). While research and analysi
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