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households were examined through questions which asked how much ofthe monthly income was spent on fixed categories such as food, clothing,fuel and light, education, and “other” (see Government of Kerala 1987;Prakash 1978). In trying to determine the manner in which remittanceswere used, some studies (e.g., Commerce Research Bureau 1978) lookedat the physical asset position but excluded the financial. 13 From thematerial presented in this article, it should be obvious that the design ofthese studies missed crucial variations among groups, and also that theeconomic behavior of few of the migrants or their households could becaptured by these categories. Finally, to get an idea of the total remittancesearned by the state, one of the main indicators taken was the amount offoreign currency that was received by banks. But I have pointed out that inareas like Veni, most of the remittances were sent through illegal channelswhich were not included in the official estimates. In Cherur, the money wassent in the form of postal drafts which also would not have been countedby these estimates. Since more than half of the migrants from the statewere Muslims and 13 percent were Ezhavas (Zachariah et al. 1999, 16) itis clear that only a small proportion of the remittances were sent throughbanks. Evidently the studies were inappropriately operationalized due to alack of understanding of the way in which the Gulf migration took placein a majority of emigrant communities in Kerala. It is not surprising thatconclusions and policy directives based on such assumptions were offtarget.In the early period of the migration, economists and governmentofficials had hoped that migrant remittances would fuel Kerala’s economicgrowth by stimulating its ailing industrial sector. When this did not takeplace, some tentative attempts were made to try to divert a part of theremittances to this sector. These attempts met with little success (see Nair1989, 360). Few people seemed interested in such an investment, and withthe chronic labor strikes in Kerala and the increased wage rates (due to theGulf migration), industries based in the state were not competitive withthose located in lower-wage areas of the country.Studies focusing on the economic impacts of international migration havelargely ignored the role of socio-cultural factors in shaping economicbehavior. This chapter has argued that the use of migrant remittancesis fundamentally affected by the way in which such remittances are212and Kuwait were workers... and that every worker on average sent home a monthly remittanceof Rs. 3,000... the figure for the loss of remittances would be approximately US$270 million peryear” (Saith 1992, 108). Although Isaac (1993) discusses different types of Gulf migrants, he toofalls into the trap of equating the “salaries” of the migrants with their total monetary gain from themigration.13The Commerce Research Bureau thus had the following categories: Land, Buildings, Jewellery,Radio, Car, Scooter, Cycle, Tape-recorder, Refrigerator, Total [value of these assets] (1978, 25).
perceived, the status-seeking activities of migrants, and the ethnic structureand values of each community. Governments, banks, and developmentorganizations that seek to augment the developmental benefit of migrantremittances must recognize the importance of these factors for migrantsand that “development” can be defined very differently by groups. Clearly,therefore, economists need to abandon the generic migrant model anddesign policies and investment opportunities that take group differencesinto account.213
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The opinions expressed in the repor
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Table of ContentsForeword1 Migratio
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Foreword
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UN recorded that 61 million migrant
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about this and other programmes. Se
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Introduction
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overseas ethnic markets; and the wa
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labor migration. This narrower topi
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narrowing income inequalities withi
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and 2004 has increased the urban po
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Connecting Internaland Internationa
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it comes to questions of migration
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internal and international migratio
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the larger cities. British ships we
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states. At present, as part of our
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36and one on international migratio
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perspective 3 that gives methodolog
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commercial, industrial and service
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taken place in migration flows. The
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to what was left of the original en
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sought refuge in Lima. It was not p
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husband who sought refuge and work
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that take place between migrants an
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to the flows of goods, resources an
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migration and close to Huancayo) or
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In some cases, families would regul
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Furthermore, the precise compositio
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This suggests that, instead of aimi
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Brynes, D.M.2003 Driving the State:
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1984 Miners, Peasants and Entrepren
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Werbner, P.1990 The Migration Proce
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Genealogy 1: Jiménez Family in 197
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Since the 1990s, there has been a b
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migrant receiving areas, 2 but focu
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well as discussing some of the cons
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carried to Ghana by migrants. 40 pe
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Table 2. Cost (in Euro) of Formal a
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home countries, for example, throug
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These insurance events can constitu
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Having people collect similar data
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people they knew. In fact, some of
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For migration research, this means
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ReferencesAppadurai, A.1996 Moderni
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Glick Schiller, N., and G. Fouron19
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Marcus, G.1995 “Ethnography in/of
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Portes, A., and J. DeWind2004 “A
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Stark, O., and D. Bloom1985 “The
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AppendixTable A.1. Two-country Tran
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initially entails high costs and ri
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To our knowledge, no study has esti
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2.1 Remittances and Income in Rural
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with its neat correspondence to the
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let z > 0 denote the predetermined
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Table 3. Gini Decomposition by Inco
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Table 4b. Gini Decomposition by Inc
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3.2 Effects of Migrant Remittances
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4. ConclusionsOur findings using na
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Knowles, J.C., and R.B. Anker1981
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Taylor, J.E.1992 “Remittances and
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124Table 2. Rural Mexico Household
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Central Region45Percentage of Villa
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128Figure 3. Relationship between P
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7Labor Market Flooding? Migrant Des
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Reibel (1997); David Card (2001); a
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The net immigration rate can be tak
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is S 0. It establishes an equilibri
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consequence a highly elastic supply
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in the populous fourteen states of
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out were both at work in this case
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Figure 7 identifies what we call
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Figure 9. Total Net In-Migration an
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Figure 10. Dynamic Economy ModelFig
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6. ConclusionThe dynamic and open e
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ReferencesAbowd, J.M., and R. Freem
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1999 “Historical perspectives on
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Hatton, T., and J.G. Williamson1998
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White, M.J. and Y. Imai1994 “The
Page 164 and 165: seasonal basis, to areas with more
Page 166 and 167: for agricultural labor were 15 and
Page 168 and 169: 3. Why People MoveThe decision to m
Page 170 and 171: producers are facing heavy losses a
Page 172 and 173: in Mumbai, which capitalizes on peo
Page 174 and 175: In conclusion, migration can bring
Page 176 and 177: is also being experienced in many r
Page 178 and 179: ReferencesBal Kumar, K.C.2003 “Mi
Page 180 and 181: Lipton, M.1980 “Migration from ru
Page 182 and 183: Shylendra, H.S., and P. Thomas1995
Page 184 and 185: 182Able-bodied men.Women migrateonl
Page 186 and 187: Majority of (ST)Baiga and Ghondsmig
Page 188 and 189: Single caste villageof (OBC) Dhimar
Page 191 and 192: 9A Socio-Cultural Perspective on Mi
Page 193 and 194: of households reported having at le
Page 195 and 196: Drawing on these perspectives, I ar
Page 197 and 198: migration tend to imitate the behav
Page 199 and 200: What is presented below is therefor
Page 201 and 202: ate of exchange and was thus sent t
Page 203 and 204: which was an important consideratio
Page 205 and 206: some migrants had started chitties,
Page 207 and 208: The extended family constituted a c
Page 209 and 210: much individuals had “locked up i
Page 211 and 212: edistribution were enforced through
Page 213: and the definition of status in eac
Page 217 and 218: Engelbrektsson, U.1978 The force of
Page 219 and 220: Parry, J. and M. Bloch1989 “Intro
Page 221 and 222: 10Migrant Workers’ Remittances an
Page 223 and 224: in labor migration emerged after, a
Page 225 and 226: husband and wife, four daughters an
Page 227 and 228: (Table 3). In the central and weste
Page 229 and 230: Table 5. Composition of Rural House
Page 231 and 232: Figure 3. Rural households’ Net I
Page 233 and 234: schistosomiasis, etc. This decline
Page 235 and 236: of them deposit the money in a bank
Page 237 and 238: to train new rural migrants in the
Page 239 and 240: Figure 4. Per Capita Temittance in
Page 241 and 242: ReferencesBai Nansheng et al.2002
Page 243 and 244: Lu Mai et al.2002 “Zhongguo nongc
Page 245: Xinhuanet2002 “Woguo Zhongxibu la
Page 248 and 249: agriculture (Cook 1999), producing
Page 250 and 251: evenue (MR) minus the marginal cost
Page 252 and 253: Before reform, the annual quota of
Page 254 and 255: Table 2 Regional Distribution of In
Page 256 and 257: Figure 3. Sources of China’s Econ
Page 258 and 259: migration are removed, all wage and
Page 260 and 261: urban-biased policies persisted, pr
Page 262 and 263: eform. Under the hukou system, Chin
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The institutional barriers faced by
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ecause of the rapid migration of th
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Migrant workers have hardly any opp
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ReferencesAu, Chun-Chung, and Verno
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Lin, Justin, Gewei Wang, and Yaohui
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12International Migration and Devel
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2. BackgroundThe recent rise in int
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of remittances: self-employment, a
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Given the size of recent emigration
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5. Remittances: An OverviewTable 1
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interpret. Some of it may be caused
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8. A Decision to Repatriate MoneyIn
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emittances in the year prior to the
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fourth one, Xiamen, is in Fujian Pr
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ReferencesAdelman, I., J.E. Taylor,
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Massey, D.1988 “International mig
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AppendixTable 1. Village-Level Remi
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Table 4. Logistic Regression Models
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13Remittances in the Latin American
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to anti-money laundering and suspic
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Finally, mulas may be sporadic trav
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has left from countries in Western
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Table 2: Remittances and Key Econom
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Source: National Money Transmitters
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One way this redistributive effect
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Managua reported having a relative
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America have a higher rate of havin
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Table 9 Frequency of Immigrant Trav
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Guyana offers an interesting exampl
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In addition to exports of these goo
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Hemisphere. Figure 7 refers to the
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alternatives. Five years ago, it wa
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concentration is pronounced, innova
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emittance recipients have a higher
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AppendixData Methodology on Pricing
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Fagen, P., and M. Bump2005 “Remit
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2003 Receptores de remesas en Ecuad
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14A Framework for Linking and Compa
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to jobs, savings, and networks that
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were expanding. That “flooding”
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ural families to repay debts, satis
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ut case studies, including that of
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would do well to examine how variou
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Carter and Sutch challenge the argu
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networks combine internal and inter
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4. Policy ImplicationsWhat implicat
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government should improve migrant w
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challenge for development practitio
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community members could help to cla
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itself). While research and analysi
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