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urban-biased policies persisted, preventing urbanization from occurringalongside industrialization. The artificial separation between rural andurban areas deprived rural migrants of the choice of permanently settlingin urban areas and led to the unique situation of under-urbanization inChina.Au and Henderson (2002) have used a production-function method tomodel and estimate urban agglomeration and optimal city size for 206cities in China. They found that the constraints of the hukou system onlabor mobility have resulted in sub-optimal size and under-agglomerationin Chinese cities, leading to significant losses in economic welfare. Themajority of Chinese cities are potentially undersized (falling below thelower bound on the 95 percent confidence interval of the size where theiroutput per worker would peak). Estimates show that increasing a city that is50 percent below its optimal size to its efficient population level will raiseoutput per worker by about 40 percent, indicating that the net benefits ofclustering and agglomeration are considerable (World Bank 2005). Basedon 2002 World Bank data on 71 countries with a population of over 50million, Figure 6 illustrates how dramatically China’s level of urbanizationdeviates from the predicted level. 3Figure 6. Economic Growth and UrbanizationSource: World Bank, WDI Online Database, http://devdata.worldbank.org/dataonline/.2583The Chenery-Syrquin structuralist method (1975) regresses the share of urbanpopulation on logged per capita GDP (PPP) and its squares and produces a linear trendof prediction. The non-parametric mean adjusted smooth method shows an S-shapedcurve relationship between urbanization and changes in income level. Both methodsillustrate a similar dramatic change in the spatial distribution of population with thegrowth of per capita income.
In addition to increasing urbanization, migration affects the structure ofthe urban population. Migration not only brings demographic changewith regard to age, gender, education level, and so on. It also reducesthe dependency-ratio of the urban population. Both these factors havecumulative and aggregate implications for the development of the urbaneconomy.Migration is selective. A number of studies have shown that rural migrantworkers are primarily youths with an average education level higher thanthose who choose not to migrate. Because of the restrictions of the hukousystem, few migrants move with their families. This selectivity stronglyaffects the age structure of the urban population. As shown in Figure 7,in the late 1980s, when small numbers of rural migrants began to moveto urban areas, they had little impact on the age structure of the urbanpopulation. With fast-growing rural–urban migration in 1990s, however,the impact of migration on the age structure of the urban population becamevery significant. In Figure 7, the pyramid illustrates the age distribution oflocal urban residents on the left and migrants on the right. In 2000, migrantsreduced the urban dependency ratio by 2.5 percentage points and the agingpopulation ratio by 0.8 percentage points by adding to the number of thosebetween 13 and 33 years old.Figure 7: The Impact of Migration on Urban Population Age StructureNote: Micro-data from the National Bureau of Statistics was used to adjust the duration of migrationand geographic boundary in order to produce a consistent comparison.Source: National Bureau of Statistics, 1 percent sample of the 1990 Census of the People’s Republicof China and 1 percent sample of the Long Form data of the 2000 Census of the People’s Republic ofChina, Beijing.4. Labor Market Segregation and Social Exclusion259Despite the clear benefits of rural–urban migration for economic growthand urban development, significant problems remain. Many of these arerelated to the continued segregation of labor markets and unfinished hukou
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The opinions expressed in the repor
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Table of ContentsForeword1 Migratio
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Foreword
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UN recorded that 61 million migrant
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about this and other programmes. Se
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Introduction
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overseas ethnic markets; and the wa
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labor migration. This narrower topi
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narrowing income inequalities withi
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and 2004 has increased the urban po
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Connecting Internaland Internationa
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it comes to questions of migration
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internal and international migratio
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the larger cities. British ships we
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states. At present, as part of our
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36and one on international migratio
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perspective 3 that gives methodolog
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commercial, industrial and service
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taken place in migration flows. The
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to what was left of the original en
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sought refuge in Lima. It was not p
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husband who sought refuge and work
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that take place between migrants an
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to the flows of goods, resources an
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migration and close to Huancayo) or
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In some cases, families would regul
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Furthermore, the precise compositio
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This suggests that, instead of aimi
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Brynes, D.M.2003 Driving the State:
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1984 Miners, Peasants and Entrepren
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Werbner, P.1990 The Migration Proce
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Genealogy 1: Jiménez Family in 197
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Since the 1990s, there has been a b
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migrant receiving areas, 2 but focu
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well as discussing some of the cons
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carried to Ghana by migrants. 40 pe
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Table 2. Cost (in Euro) of Formal a
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home countries, for example, throug
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These insurance events can constitu
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Having people collect similar data
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people they knew. In fact, some of
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For migration research, this means
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ReferencesAppadurai, A.1996 Moderni
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Glick Schiller, N., and G. Fouron19
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Marcus, G.1995 “Ethnography in/of
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Portes, A., and J. DeWind2004 “A
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Stark, O., and D. Bloom1985 “The
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AppendixTable A.1. Two-country Tran
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initially entails high costs and ri
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To our knowledge, no study has esti
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2.1 Remittances and Income in Rural
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with its neat correspondence to the
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let z > 0 denote the predetermined
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Table 3. Gini Decomposition by Inco
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Table 4b. Gini Decomposition by Inc
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3.2 Effects of Migrant Remittances
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4. ConclusionsOur findings using na
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Knowles, J.C., and R.B. Anker1981
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Taylor, J.E.1992 “Remittances and
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124Table 2. Rural Mexico Household
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Central Region45Percentage of Villa
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128Figure 3. Relationship between P
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7Labor Market Flooding? Migrant Des
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Reibel (1997); David Card (2001); a
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The net immigration rate can be tak
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is S 0. It establishes an equilibri
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consequence a highly elastic supply
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in the populous fourteen states of
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out were both at work in this case
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Figure 7 identifies what we call
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Figure 9. Total Net In-Migration an
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Figure 10. Dynamic Economy ModelFig
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6. ConclusionThe dynamic and open e
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ReferencesAbowd, J.M., and R. Freem
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1999 “Historical perspectives on
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Hatton, T., and J.G. Williamson1998
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White, M.J. and Y. Imai1994 “The
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seasonal basis, to areas with more
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for agricultural labor were 15 and
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3. Why People MoveThe decision to m
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producers are facing heavy losses a
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in Mumbai, which capitalizes on peo
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In conclusion, migration can bring
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is also being experienced in many r
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ReferencesBal Kumar, K.C.2003 “Mi
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Lipton, M.1980 “Migration from ru
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Shylendra, H.S., and P. Thomas1995
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182Able-bodied men.Women migrateonl
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Majority of (ST)Baiga and Ghondsmig
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Single caste villageof (OBC) Dhimar
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9A Socio-Cultural Perspective on Mi
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of households reported having at le
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Drawing on these perspectives, I ar
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migration tend to imitate the behav
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What is presented below is therefor
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ate of exchange and was thus sent t
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which was an important consideratio
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some migrants had started chitties,
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The extended family constituted a c
Page 209 and 210: much individuals had “locked up i
Page 211 and 212: edistribution were enforced through
Page 213 and 214: and the definition of status in eac
Page 215 and 216: perceived, the status-seeking activ
Page 217 and 218: Engelbrektsson, U.1978 The force of
Page 219 and 220: Parry, J. and M. Bloch1989 “Intro
Page 221 and 222: 10Migrant Workers’ Remittances an
Page 223 and 224: in labor migration emerged after, a
Page 225 and 226: husband and wife, four daughters an
Page 227 and 228: (Table 3). In the central and weste
Page 229 and 230: Table 5. Composition of Rural House
Page 231 and 232: Figure 3. Rural households’ Net I
Page 233 and 234: schistosomiasis, etc. This decline
Page 235 and 236: of them deposit the money in a bank
Page 237 and 238: to train new rural migrants in the
Page 239 and 240: Figure 4. Per Capita Temittance in
Page 241 and 242: ReferencesBai Nansheng et al.2002
Page 243 and 244: Lu Mai et al.2002 “Zhongguo nongc
Page 245: Xinhuanet2002 “Woguo Zhongxibu la
Page 248 and 249: agriculture (Cook 1999), producing
Page 250 and 251: evenue (MR) minus the marginal cost
Page 252 and 253: Before reform, the annual quota of
Page 254 and 255: Table 2 Regional Distribution of In
Page 256 and 257: Figure 3. Sources of China’s Econ
Page 258 and 259: migration are removed, all wage and
Page 262 and 263: eform. Under the hukou system, Chin
Page 264 and 265: The institutional barriers faced by
Page 266 and 267: ecause of the rapid migration of th
Page 268 and 269: Migrant workers have hardly any opp
Page 270 and 271: ReferencesAu, Chun-Chung, and Verno
Page 272 and 273: Lin, Justin, Gewei Wang, and Yaohui
Page 275 and 276: 12International Migration and Devel
Page 277 and 278: 2. BackgroundThe recent rise in int
Page 279 and 280: of remittances: self-employment, a
Page 281 and 282: Given the size of recent emigration
Page 283 and 284: 5. Remittances: An OverviewTable 1
Page 285 and 286: interpret. Some of it may be caused
Page 287 and 288: 8. A Decision to Repatriate MoneyIn
Page 289 and 290: emittances in the year prior to the
Page 291 and 292: fourth one, Xiamen, is in Fujian Pr
Page 293 and 294: ReferencesAdelman, I., J.E. Taylor,
Page 295 and 296: Massey, D.1988 “International mig
Page 297 and 298: AppendixTable 1. Village-Level Remi
Page 299 and 300: Table 4. Logistic Regression Models
Page 305 and 306: 13Remittances in the Latin American
Page 307 and 308: to anti-money laundering and suspic
Page 309 and 310: Finally, mulas may be sporadic trav
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has left from countries in Western
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Table 2: Remittances and Key Econom
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Source: National Money Transmitters
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One way this redistributive effect
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Managua reported having a relative
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America have a higher rate of havin
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Table 9 Frequency of Immigrant Trav
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Guyana offers an interesting exampl
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In addition to exports of these goo
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Hemisphere. Figure 7 refers to the
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alternatives. Five years ago, it wa
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concentration is pronounced, innova
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emittance recipients have a higher
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AppendixData Methodology on Pricing
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Fagen, P., and M. Bump2005 “Remit
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2003 Receptores de remesas en Ecuad
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14A Framework for Linking and Compa
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to jobs, savings, and networks that
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were expanding. That “flooding”
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ural families to repay debts, satis
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ut case studies, including that of
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would do well to examine how variou
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Carter and Sutch challenge the argu
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networks combine internal and inter
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4. Policy ImplicationsWhat implicat
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government should improve migrant w
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challenge for development practitio
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community members could help to cla
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itself). While research and analysi
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