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minds of many earlier migrants. An emphasis on the value of educationwas embedded in traditional Chinese culture, which was dominated byConfucian thought and emigrants’ investment in educational infrastructurereflects this.The second innovation of our paper is that we have more detailed informationon remittances than earlier studies. Most studies report remittances duringthe most recent migration trip (Durand et al. 1996), but we have data bothon remittances in the previous year and remittances over the course ofmigration (i.e., cumulative remittances). 2 We note that the cumulativeamount of remittances is the result of money sent over different years, andbecause of inflation and fluctuation in the exchange rate, the measure isadmittedly not entirely accurate. Still, we believe it is useful in calculatingthe overall financial picture of a migrant’s journey. Furthermore, thisstrategy allows us to get a sense of the total financial flow from emigrantsto the migrant-sending community over the years, which has implicationsfor development potential and the trajectory of the community.3. The Case of Emigration from Fujian, China278Fujian Province is located on the southeastern coast of China, across theTaiwan Strait (see Map 1). The 2000 Chinese population census shows thatFujian had a population of 34 million (NBS 2002). Fujian has a long legacyof emigration, especially to Southeast Asian countries. However, the recentwave of emigration did not start until the mid-1980s. We focus on FujianProvince for our empirical studies for several reasons. First, emigration fromFujian Province has increased significantly, and it has actually become thetop international migrant-sending province in China (Liang 2001). Muchof this emigration is clandestine in nature and is difficult to study throughnational surveys or census. The journeys of Fujian migrants also caughtthe attention of the mass media across the globe. Some of these trips endedin tragedy (such as the ill-fated Golden Venture trip in 1993 and the deathof 58 migrants in Dover, England in 2000). As recently as 2005, Fujianesemigrants were caught in the conflict in Iraq and were taken as hostagesby mistake and subsequently released (Wong 2005; World Journal 2005).But sensational media stories are not the same as systematic analysis andclearly more thorough systematic social science analysis of the causes andconsequences of emigration from Fujian is needed.2Durand et al. (1996) did use cumulative remittances in their models. However, their cumulativeremittances were derived from the respondent’s report on average remittances on the most recenttrip (trip duration in months times average remittance, see p.257). In our case, we asked the totalcumulative remittance directly in the survey.
Given the size of recent emigration, what are the consequences for themigrant-sending communities in China? Many scholars in China havewritten about the impact of emigration on the development of the localeconomy in China, and much of this line of work was carried out byChinese historians and anthropologists who tend to rely on aggregate dataand statistics. Our approach is to move the discussion to the individual andhousehold level, and to model the decision-making process using recentlycollected data both at individual, household, and community levels.4. Data and MethodsThis project is modeled on the success of the Mexican Migration Project(MMP) and the Latin American Migration Project (LAMP) directed byDouglas Massey and Jorge Durand. From February to June 2002, wedesigned three questionnaires to be used in the ethnosurvey: the householdquestionnaire used in China, the household questionnaire used in theUnited States, and the community-level questionnaire for migrant-sendingcommunities in China. We used the questionnaires for MMP and LAMPas a model and naturally modified the questionnaires to take into accountthe Chinese context. The household-level questionnaire contains basicinformation on socio-demographic characteristics of each member of thehousehold (including those who are abroad), and basic information on theinternal and international migration history for all household members.In light of the importance of religion in immigrant lives (Guest 2003),we include information on religion for each person. Unlike the case ofMexico, we also include question items on cadre status (ever been a cadreand year of that position) in order to test our hypothesis from the markettransition theory. For household heads and spouses, we gathered marriagehistory, fertility history, labor history, and consumption patterns. At thehousehold level, we have information on remittances in the year of thesurvey, and cumulative remittances, business formation, land ownershipand other property ownership, housing conditions, and tenure status.Our community questionnaire (at the village level) covers a widespectrum of information: demographic background (population figuresfor major census years, immigration history), agriculture sown, industrialinfrastructure, educational infrastructure, public services, financialinfrastructure, transportation infrastructure, and medical infrastructure.279After some modifications, we finalized the questionnaires in early July2002. Within eastern Fujian Province, we decided to survey three majorregions: the Mafu district (suburban district of Fuzhou city), ChangxiaoCity, and Tujiang County (all fictional names). All three regions send large
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The opinions expressed in the repor
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Table of ContentsForeword1 Migratio
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Foreword
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UN recorded that 61 million migrant
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about this and other programmes. Se
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Introduction
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overseas ethnic markets; and the wa
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labor migration. This narrower topi
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narrowing income inequalities withi
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and 2004 has increased the urban po
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Connecting Internaland Internationa
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it comes to questions of migration
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internal and international migratio
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the larger cities. British ships we
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states. At present, as part of our
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36and one on international migratio
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perspective 3 that gives methodolog
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commercial, industrial and service
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taken place in migration flows. The
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to what was left of the original en
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sought refuge in Lima. It was not p
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husband who sought refuge and work
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that take place between migrants an
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to the flows of goods, resources an
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migration and close to Huancayo) or
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In some cases, families would regul
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Furthermore, the precise compositio
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This suggests that, instead of aimi
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Brynes, D.M.2003 Driving the State:
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1984 Miners, Peasants and Entrepren
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Werbner, P.1990 The Migration Proce
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Genealogy 1: Jiménez Family in 197
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Since the 1990s, there has been a b
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migrant receiving areas, 2 but focu
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well as discussing some of the cons
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carried to Ghana by migrants. 40 pe
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Table 2. Cost (in Euro) of Formal a
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home countries, for example, throug
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These insurance events can constitu
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Having people collect similar data
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people they knew. In fact, some of
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For migration research, this means
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ReferencesAppadurai, A.1996 Moderni
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Glick Schiller, N., and G. Fouron19
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Marcus, G.1995 “Ethnography in/of
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Portes, A., and J. DeWind2004 “A
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Stark, O., and D. Bloom1985 “The
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AppendixTable A.1. Two-country Tran
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initially entails high costs and ri
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To our knowledge, no study has esti
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2.1 Remittances and Income in Rural
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with its neat correspondence to the
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let z > 0 denote the predetermined
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Table 3. Gini Decomposition by Inco
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Table 4b. Gini Decomposition by Inc
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3.2 Effects of Migrant Remittances
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4. ConclusionsOur findings using na
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Knowles, J.C., and R.B. Anker1981
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Taylor, J.E.1992 “Remittances and
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124Table 2. Rural Mexico Household
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Central Region45Percentage of Villa
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128Figure 3. Relationship between P
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7Labor Market Flooding? Migrant Des
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Reibel (1997); David Card (2001); a
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The net immigration rate can be tak
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is S 0. It establishes an equilibri
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consequence a highly elastic supply
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in the populous fourteen states of
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out were both at work in this case
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Figure 7 identifies what we call
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Figure 9. Total Net In-Migration an
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Figure 10. Dynamic Economy ModelFig
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6. ConclusionThe dynamic and open e
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ReferencesAbowd, J.M., and R. Freem
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1999 “Historical perspectives on
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Hatton, T., and J.G. Williamson1998
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White, M.J. and Y. Imai1994 “The
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seasonal basis, to areas with more
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for agricultural labor were 15 and
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3. Why People MoveThe decision to m
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producers are facing heavy losses a
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in Mumbai, which capitalizes on peo
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In conclusion, migration can bring
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is also being experienced in many r
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ReferencesBal Kumar, K.C.2003 “Mi
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Lipton, M.1980 “Migration from ru
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Shylendra, H.S., and P. Thomas1995
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182Able-bodied men.Women migrateonl
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Majority of (ST)Baiga and Ghondsmig
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Single caste villageof (OBC) Dhimar
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9A Socio-Cultural Perspective on Mi
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of households reported having at le
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Drawing on these perspectives, I ar
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migration tend to imitate the behav
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What is presented below is therefor
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ate of exchange and was thus sent t
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which was an important consideratio
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some migrants had started chitties,
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The extended family constituted a c
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much individuals had “locked up i
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edistribution were enforced through
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and the definition of status in eac
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perceived, the status-seeking activ
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Engelbrektsson, U.1978 The force of
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Parry, J. and M. Bloch1989 “Intro
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10Migrant Workers’ Remittances an
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in labor migration emerged after, a
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husband and wife, four daughters an
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(Table 3). In the central and weste
Page 229 and 230: Table 5. Composition of Rural House
Page 231 and 232: Figure 3. Rural households’ Net I
Page 233 and 234: schistosomiasis, etc. This decline
Page 235 and 236: of them deposit the money in a bank
Page 237 and 238: to train new rural migrants in the
Page 239 and 240: Figure 4. Per Capita Temittance in
Page 241 and 242: ReferencesBai Nansheng et al.2002
Page 243 and 244: Lu Mai et al.2002 “Zhongguo nongc
Page 245: Xinhuanet2002 “Woguo Zhongxibu la
Page 248 and 249: agriculture (Cook 1999), producing
Page 250 and 251: evenue (MR) minus the marginal cost
Page 252 and 253: Before reform, the annual quota of
Page 254 and 255: Table 2 Regional Distribution of In
Page 256 and 257: Figure 3. Sources of China’s Econ
Page 258 and 259: migration are removed, all wage and
Page 260 and 261: urban-biased policies persisted, pr
Page 262 and 263: eform. Under the hukou system, Chin
Page 264 and 265: The institutional barriers faced by
Page 266 and 267: ecause of the rapid migration of th
Page 268 and 269: Migrant workers have hardly any opp
Page 270 and 271: ReferencesAu, Chun-Chung, and Verno
Page 272 and 273: Lin, Justin, Gewei Wang, and Yaohui
Page 275 and 276: 12International Migration and Devel
Page 277 and 278: 2. BackgroundThe recent rise in int
Page 279: of remittances: self-employment, a
Page 283 and 284: 5. Remittances: An OverviewTable 1
Page 285 and 286: interpret. Some of it may be caused
Page 287 and 288: 8. A Decision to Repatriate MoneyIn
Page 289 and 290: emittances in the year prior to the
Page 291 and 292: fourth one, Xiamen, is in Fujian Pr
Page 293 and 294: ReferencesAdelman, I., J.E. Taylor,
Page 295 and 296: Massey, D.1988 “International mig
Page 297 and 298: AppendixTable 1. Village-Level Remi
Page 299 and 300: Table 4. Logistic Regression Models
Page 305 and 306: 13Remittances in the Latin American
Page 307 and 308: to anti-money laundering and suspic
Page 309 and 310: Finally, mulas may be sporadic trav
Page 311 and 312: has left from countries in Western
Page 313 and 314: Table 2: Remittances and Key Econom
Page 315 and 316: Source: National Money Transmitters
Page 317 and 318: One way this redistributive effect
Page 319 and 320: Managua reported having a relative
Page 321 and 322: America have a higher rate of havin
Page 323 and 324: Table 9 Frequency of Immigrant Trav
Page 325 and 326: Guyana offers an interesting exampl
Page 327 and 328: In addition to exports of these goo
Page 329 and 330: Hemisphere. Figure 7 refers to the
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alternatives. Five years ago, it wa
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concentration is pronounced, innova
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emittance recipients have a higher
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AppendixData Methodology on Pricing
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Fagen, P., and M. Bump2005 “Remit
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2003 Receptores de remesas en Ecuad
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14A Framework for Linking and Compa
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to jobs, savings, and networks that
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were expanding. That “flooding”
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ural families to repay debts, satis
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ut case studies, including that of
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would do well to examine how variou
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Carter and Sutch challenge the argu
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networks combine internal and inter
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4. Policy ImplicationsWhat implicat
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government should improve migrant w
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challenge for development practitio
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community members could help to cla
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itself). While research and analysi
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