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commercial, industrial and service enterprises; and of these a generousnumber of workers (including also apprentices, craftsmen, and owner/managers) came from the Mantaro region (only five hours by road) whereeducational levels were well above the average for highland locations.Moreover, a significant proportion of these small-scale enterprises, mostlyoperating in the fields of transport and commerce, were directly articulatedwith this highland region and its neighboring mining, agricultural andlivestock zones. This context laid the groundwork for the emergenceof several types of multiple family-enterprises that combined differentbranches of economic activity with networks of social relations that crossedthe rural–urban divide.Such phenomena pointed to the need to move away from simple bipolarmodels of migration that focused on the movement from “place of origin”to “place of destination,” or which represented the flows of people to newlocations in terms of the “adaptation” or “adjustment” of new migrantsto their so-called “host” societies. Instead one needed to treat migratoryprocesses as essentially multi-sited and inseparable from the more generalissues of translocal livelihoods and mobility.40Hence exploration of the increasing integration of the Mantaro regioninto the metropolitan area of Lima required a detailed understanding ofthe organizing practices and networks that accompanied this process. Asmany Andean specialists have repeatedly demonstrated, life in the Andeshas always been characterized by a high degree of spatial movementbetween ecological zones producing a variety of products and throughwell-trodden pathways of trade and administration. Thus the notion ofmigrating for work to obtain access to additional resources and to improveone’s standard of living was a familiar option for many local householdersand there was an abundance of examples on hand of those who had, to adegree, already “made it.” Nevertheless, for relatively poor rural dwellers,the hazards and possible benefits of moving to a shantytown or poorinner-city neighborhood of the metropolis were daunting, and requiredstrong back-up from family, friends, compadres (ritual “co-parents”), andpaisanos (“fellow countrymen”). This conglomeration of factors providedthe breeding ground for the emergence and proliferation of migrantassociations.2.2 Migrant Associations and the Web of Rural-Urban TiesAs compared to the rest of Latin America, Peruvian urban life is strikingfor its large number of migrant associations and other kinds of civicorganizations. Many of these can be traced back to earlier periods when
urban growth and planning was taking off. By the early 1970s, PaulDoughty (1970) estimated that there were about 5000 migrant associationsin the metropolitan area of Lima. 6 These associations can be distinguishedfrom other types of voluntary associations, such as sports clubs, churches,political parties and social clubs, by their strong identification with theplaces of origin of particular migrant groups. 7 Each association or club isidentified by the name of a village, town, district or region and normallyrestricts membership to persons born in the locality or who have closeconnections to it (for example, through marriage or having lived there).Although the range of activities and frequency of interaction amongmembers may vary considerably from club to club, the declared aims ofeach are usually expressed in terms of furthering the social, economic and/or political interests of the home community and of maintaining regularcontact among migrants resident in the city. Many associations organizesocial activities such as dances and sports competitions, participatein religious fiestas which are celebrated in the home area and/or in theurban localities where they now live. Members meet regularly to plan andsponsor development projects for their home communities. Such projectsrange from major infrastructural projects such as the building of roads,bridges and hydroelectric plants 8 to more modest renovations of municipalbuildings, churches and the like. In addition, through the networks ofmembers, who are likely to be related by kinship, affinity and compadrazgo(co-parenthood), individuals from the same village or region (paisanos)may help each other in finding employment or assist when someone issick or suffers bereavement. Some clubs also operate loan facilities, babysitting circles, and work parties for the construction of meeting places orfor other group projects in the city.2.3 At the Turn of the New MillenniumIn 1997, we initiated a restudy 9 of translocal livelihoods and organizationsin the Mantaro region. By this time, it was clear that important shifts had6Later Altamirano (1984) recalculated the figure, concluding that there were as many as 6000; butsince then it seems that they have increased again by another 1000 (Doughty 1997,79).7In this respect they can be compared to the “hometown” organizations reported in other parts ofLatin America and the U.S., as well as to similar urban associations based on ethnic or villageaffiliation in Africa.8See, for example, Adams’ (1959) and Grondin’s (1975) accounts of how migrant groups fromthe village of Muquiyauyo in the Mantaro valley raised a large part of the funds and recruitedspecialist engineers for the installation of a community-owned hydroelectric scheme.9The research was supported by NIRP (The Netherlands–Israel Research Program) and wascoordinated by myself and Pieter de Vries (Wageningen University), Teófilo Altamirano (CatholicUniversity, Lima) and Moshe Shokheid (Tel-Aviv University, Israel). Two Peruvian PhDresearchers (Carla Tamagno and Manuel Gilvinio) and a Danish researcher (Ulla Berg) carried outdetailed anthropological fieldwork (Berg 2001).41
Page 2 and 3: The opinions expressed in the repor
Page 5 and 6: Table of ContentsForeword1 Migratio
Page 7: Foreword
Page 10 and 11: UN recorded that 61 million migrant
Page 12 and 13: about this and other programmes. Se
Page 15: Introduction
Page 18 and 19: overseas ethnic markets; and the wa
Page 20 and 21: labor migration. This narrower topi
Page 22 and 23: narrowing income inequalities withi
Page 24 and 25: and 2004 has increased the urban po
Page 27: Connecting Internaland Internationa
Page 30 and 31: it comes to questions of migration
Page 32 and 33: internal and international migratio
Page 34 and 35: the larger cities. British ships we
Page 36 and 37: states. At present, as part of our
Page 38 and 39: 36and one on international migratio
Page 40 and 41: perspective 3 that gives methodolog
Page 44 and 45: taken place in migration flows. The
Page 46 and 47: to what was left of the original en
Page 48 and 49: sought refuge in Lima. It was not p
Page 50 and 51: husband who sought refuge and work
Page 52 and 53: that take place between migrants an
Page 54 and 55: to the flows of goods, resources an
Page 56 and 57: migration and close to Huancayo) or
Page 58 and 59: In some cases, families would regul
Page 60 and 61: Furthermore, the precise compositio
Page 62 and 63: This suggests that, instead of aimi
Page 64 and 65: Brynes, D.M.2003 Driving the State:
Page 66 and 67: 1984 Miners, Peasants and Entrepren
Page 68 and 69: Werbner, P.1990 The Migration Proce
Page 70 and 71: Genealogy 1: Jiménez Family in 197
Page 72 and 73: Since the 1990s, there has been a b
Page 74 and 75: migrant receiving areas, 2 but focu
Page 76 and 77: well as discussing some of the cons
Page 78 and 79: carried to Ghana by migrants. 40 pe
Page 80 and 81: Table 2. Cost (in Euro) of Formal a
Page 82 and 83: home countries, for example, throug
Page 84 and 85: These insurance events can constitu
Page 86 and 87: Having people collect similar data
Page 88 and 89: people they knew. In fact, some of
Page 90 and 91: For migration research, this means
Page 92 and 93:
ReferencesAppadurai, A.1996 Moderni
Page 94 and 95:
Glick Schiller, N., and G. Fouron19
Page 96 and 97:
Marcus, G.1995 “Ethnography in/of
Page 98 and 99:
Portes, A., and J. DeWind2004 “A
Page 100 and 101:
Stark, O., and D. Bloom1985 “The
Page 102 and 103:
AppendixTable A.1. Two-country Tran
Page 104 and 105:
initially entails high costs and ri
Page 106 and 107:
To our knowledge, no study has esti
Page 108 and 109:
2.1 Remittances and Income in Rural
Page 110 and 111:
with its neat correspondence to the
Page 112 and 113:
let z > 0 denote the predetermined
Page 114 and 115:
Table 3. Gini Decomposition by Inco
Page 116 and 117:
Table 4b. Gini Decomposition by Inc
Page 118 and 119:
3.2 Effects of Migrant Remittances
Page 120 and 121:
4. ConclusionsOur findings using na
Page 122 and 123:
Knowles, J.C., and R.B. Anker1981
Page 124 and 125:
Taylor, J.E.1992 “Remittances and
Page 126 and 127:
124Table 2. Rural Mexico Household
Page 128 and 129:
Central Region45Percentage of Villa
Page 130 and 131:
128Figure 3. Relationship between P
Page 133 and 134:
7Labor Market Flooding? Migrant Des
Page 135 and 136:
Reibel (1997); David Card (2001); a
Page 137 and 138:
The net immigration rate can be tak
Page 139 and 140:
is S 0. It establishes an equilibri
Page 141 and 142:
consequence a highly elastic supply
Page 143 and 144:
in the populous fourteen states of
Page 145 and 146:
out were both at work in this case
Page 147 and 148:
Figure 7 identifies what we call
Page 149 and 150:
Figure 9. Total Net In-Migration an
Page 151 and 152:
Figure 10. Dynamic Economy ModelFig
Page 153 and 154:
6. ConclusionThe dynamic and open e
Page 155 and 156:
ReferencesAbowd, J.M., and R. Freem
Page 157 and 158:
1999 “Historical perspectives on
Page 159 and 160:
Hatton, T., and J.G. Williamson1998
Page 161:
White, M.J. and Y. Imai1994 “The
Page 164 and 165:
seasonal basis, to areas with more
Page 166 and 167:
for agricultural labor were 15 and
Page 168 and 169:
3. Why People MoveThe decision to m
Page 170 and 171:
producers are facing heavy losses a
Page 172 and 173:
in Mumbai, which capitalizes on peo
Page 174 and 175:
In conclusion, migration can bring
Page 176 and 177:
is also being experienced in many r
Page 178 and 179:
ReferencesBal Kumar, K.C.2003 “Mi
Page 180 and 181:
Lipton, M.1980 “Migration from ru
Page 182 and 183:
Shylendra, H.S., and P. Thomas1995
Page 184 and 185:
182Able-bodied men.Women migrateonl
Page 186 and 187:
Majority of (ST)Baiga and Ghondsmig
Page 188 and 189:
Single caste villageof (OBC) Dhimar
Page 191 and 192:
9A Socio-Cultural Perspective on Mi
Page 193 and 194:
of households reported having at le
Page 195 and 196:
Drawing on these perspectives, I ar
Page 197 and 198:
migration tend to imitate the behav
Page 199 and 200:
What is presented below is therefor
Page 201 and 202:
ate of exchange and was thus sent t
Page 203 and 204:
which was an important consideratio
Page 205 and 206:
some migrants had started chitties,
Page 207 and 208:
The extended family constituted a c
Page 209 and 210:
much individuals had “locked up i
Page 211 and 212:
edistribution were enforced through
Page 213 and 214:
and the definition of status in eac
Page 215 and 216:
perceived, the status-seeking activ
Page 217 and 218:
Engelbrektsson, U.1978 The force of
Page 219 and 220:
Parry, J. and M. Bloch1989 “Intro
Page 221 and 222:
10Migrant Workers’ Remittances an
Page 223 and 224:
in labor migration emerged after, a
Page 225 and 226:
husband and wife, four daughters an
Page 227 and 228:
(Table 3). In the central and weste
Page 229 and 230:
Table 5. Composition of Rural House
Page 231 and 232:
Figure 3. Rural households’ Net I
Page 233 and 234:
schistosomiasis, etc. This decline
Page 235 and 236:
of them deposit the money in a bank
Page 237 and 238:
to train new rural migrants in the
Page 239 and 240:
Figure 4. Per Capita Temittance in
Page 241 and 242:
ReferencesBai Nansheng et al.2002
Page 243 and 244:
Lu Mai et al.2002 “Zhongguo nongc
Page 245:
Xinhuanet2002 “Woguo Zhongxibu la
Page 248 and 249:
agriculture (Cook 1999), producing
Page 250 and 251:
evenue (MR) minus the marginal cost
Page 252 and 253:
Before reform, the annual quota of
Page 254 and 255:
Table 2 Regional Distribution of In
Page 256 and 257:
Figure 3. Sources of China’s Econ
Page 258 and 259:
migration are removed, all wage and
Page 260 and 261:
urban-biased policies persisted, pr
Page 262 and 263:
eform. Under the hukou system, Chin
Page 264 and 265:
The institutional barriers faced by
Page 266 and 267:
ecause of the rapid migration of th
Page 268 and 269:
Migrant workers have hardly any opp
Page 270 and 271:
ReferencesAu, Chun-Chung, and Verno
Page 272 and 273:
Lin, Justin, Gewei Wang, and Yaohui
Page 275 and 276:
12International Migration and Devel
Page 277 and 278:
2. BackgroundThe recent rise in int
Page 279 and 280:
of remittances: self-employment, a
Page 281 and 282:
Given the size of recent emigration
Page 283 and 284:
5. Remittances: An OverviewTable 1
Page 285 and 286:
interpret. Some of it may be caused
Page 287 and 288:
8. A Decision to Repatriate MoneyIn
Page 289 and 290:
emittances in the year prior to the
Page 291 and 292:
fourth one, Xiamen, is in Fujian Pr
Page 293 and 294:
ReferencesAdelman, I., J.E. Taylor,
Page 295 and 296:
Massey, D.1988 “International mig
Page 297 and 298:
AppendixTable 1. Village-Level Remi
Page 299 and 300:
Table 4. Logistic Regression Models
Page 301 and 302:
Page 303 and 304:
Page 305 and 306:
13Remittances in the Latin American
Page 307 and 308:
to anti-money laundering and suspic
Page 309 and 310:
Finally, mulas may be sporadic trav
Page 311 and 312:
has left from countries in Western
Page 313 and 314:
Table 2: Remittances and Key Econom
Page 315 and 316:
Source: National Money Transmitters
Page 317 and 318:
One way this redistributive effect
Page 319 and 320:
Managua reported having a relative
Page 321 and 322:
America have a higher rate of havin
Page 323 and 324:
Table 9 Frequency of Immigrant Trav
Page 325 and 326:
Guyana offers an interesting exampl
Page 327 and 328:
In addition to exports of these goo
Page 329 and 330:
Hemisphere. Figure 7 refers to the
Page 331 and 332:
alternatives. Five years ago, it wa
Page 333 and 334:
concentration is pronounced, innova
Page 335 and 336:
emittance recipients have a higher
Page 337 and 338:
AppendixData Methodology on Pricing
Page 339 and 340:
Fagen, P., and M. Bump2005 “Remit
Page 341:
2003 Receptores de remesas en Ecuad
Page 345 and 346:
14A Framework for Linking and Compa
Page 347 and 348:
to jobs, savings, and networks that
Page 349 and 350:
were expanding. That “flooding”
Page 351 and 352:
ural families to repay debts, satis
Page 353 and 354:
ut case studies, including that of
Page 355 and 356:
would do well to examine how variou
Page 357 and 358:
Carter and Sutch challenge the argu
Page 359 and 360:
networks combine internal and inter
Page 361 and 362:
4. Policy ImplicationsWhat implicat
Page 363 and 364:
government should improve migrant w
Page 365 and 366:
challenge for development practitio
Page 367 and 368:
community members could help to cla
Page 369:
itself). While research and analysi
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