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at least by an additional 10 percent (legal migration alone has an annualinflow of half a million Latin Americans): Between 1989 and 2003, sevenmillion Latin American and Caribbean immigrants arrived legally into theUnited States (see Table 1 and Figure 1).Table 1: Latin American and Caribbean ImmigrantsU.S.A. Canada Japan EuropeCaribbean 2,953,066 294,055 ND60,000 Dominicansin SpainCentral America 2,026,150 71,865 ND NDSouth America1,930,271300,000350,000(Brazil andPeru)400,000 Ecuadoriansin Spain; 100,000Ecuadorians andPeruvians in ItalyMexico 9,177,487 36,225 ND NDLatin America &Caribbean16,086,974 702,145 350,000 2,000,000Source: U.S. Census Bureau; Canada Statistics, Canada Statistics 2001 Census, IOM, Migration fromLatin America to Europe: Trends and Policy Challenges, Geneva 2003; Japan: Rosa Ester Rossini “ONovo Enraizamento: A Conquista do Espaço Pelos Nikkeis do Brasil no Japão” 2002. Note: ND NoData.Figure 1: Latin American migration to the U.S.3043. Regulatory Issues in the AmericasThe rules governing money transfers in the Americas are similar to thoseof other regions in the world. The concern within the United States aboutinbound and outbound payments pays special attention to compliance
to anti-money laundering and suspicious activities. But it also addressesconsumer issues concerning rights of money senders. In Latin America, theapproach is broader and pays attention to compliance to rules that do notconflict with U.S. regulations.Unlicensed businesses represent a variety of players, such as individualentrepreneurs, travel agents who have a license for airfare sales but not forfinancial transfers, or retail outlet stores whose agents offer “alternative”transfers to licensed businesses, though they may also have a license toprovide transfers. Informal businesses typically operate in countries whereflows are not particularly attractive to companies because of their smallvolume, where foreign currency transfers are highly regulated by the state,where technology is still inaccessible to individuals and businesses, or wherecustomers have greater trust and preference for person-to-person delivery.However, these businesses or entrepreneurs are aware of the presence of aregulatory environment. In many instances, some informal entrepreneurshave matured and evolved into formally licensed business operations. Someof the Dominican Republic and Salvadoran companies operating today areexamples of this change. Conversely, informal businesses make up over 50percent of the total volume transferred to Haiti, Cuba, and Nicaragua.Most transfers to Latin America today, however, take place through fullylicensed businesses. Regulatory procedures monitoring the U.S.–LatinAmerica corridor primarily occur in the United States. In order for abusiness to legally offer money transfers, the company has to complywith federal and state (and sometimes municipal) regulations regardingmoney laundering, suspicious activities, and day-to-day operations. Thecompliance process often involves bonding and regular audits, as well asmaking information available about transfers and the agents with whomthe company operates.Money transfer companies are regulated in more than forty states andmunicipalities as non-bank financial institutions labeled as money servicebusinesses, with the requirement to have a license and a bond to operate.Federally, the regulatory environment of “Money Service Businesses” ismanaged by the Treasury Department through the Office of the Comptrollerof the Currency, the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FinCEN),and the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC), agencies that complywith the Bank Secrecy Act and the USA Patriot Act. Reporting to FinCENfocuses on preventing money-laundering practices, while reporting toOFAC involves monitoring transfers from entities or countries listed by thisOffice. In addition to the reports and audits, the companies need to meetseveral procedural legal requirements, which include a written compliance305
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The opinions expressed in the repor
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Table of ContentsForeword1 Migratio
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Foreword
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UN recorded that 61 million migrant
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about this and other programmes. Se
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Introduction
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overseas ethnic markets; and the wa
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labor migration. This narrower topi
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narrowing income inequalities withi
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and 2004 has increased the urban po
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Connecting Internaland Internationa
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it comes to questions of migration
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internal and international migratio
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the larger cities. British ships we
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states. At present, as part of our
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36and one on international migratio
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perspective 3 that gives methodolog
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commercial, industrial and service
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taken place in migration flows. The
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to what was left of the original en
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sought refuge in Lima. It was not p
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husband who sought refuge and work
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that take place between migrants an
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to the flows of goods, resources an
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migration and close to Huancayo) or
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In some cases, families would regul
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Furthermore, the precise compositio
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This suggests that, instead of aimi
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Brynes, D.M.2003 Driving the State:
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1984 Miners, Peasants and Entrepren
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Werbner, P.1990 The Migration Proce
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Genealogy 1: Jiménez Family in 197
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Since the 1990s, there has been a b
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migrant receiving areas, 2 but focu
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well as discussing some of the cons
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carried to Ghana by migrants. 40 pe
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Table 2. Cost (in Euro) of Formal a
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home countries, for example, throug
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These insurance events can constitu
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Having people collect similar data
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people they knew. In fact, some of
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For migration research, this means
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ReferencesAppadurai, A.1996 Moderni
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Glick Schiller, N., and G. Fouron19
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Marcus, G.1995 “Ethnography in/of
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Portes, A., and J. DeWind2004 “A
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Stark, O., and D. Bloom1985 “The
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AppendixTable A.1. Two-country Tran
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initially entails high costs and ri
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To our knowledge, no study has esti
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2.1 Remittances and Income in Rural
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with its neat correspondence to the
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let z > 0 denote the predetermined
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Table 3. Gini Decomposition by Inco
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Table 4b. Gini Decomposition by Inc
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3.2 Effects of Migrant Remittances
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4. ConclusionsOur findings using na
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Knowles, J.C., and R.B. Anker1981
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Taylor, J.E.1992 “Remittances and
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124Table 2. Rural Mexico Household
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Central Region45Percentage of Villa
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128Figure 3. Relationship between P
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7Labor Market Flooding? Migrant Des
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Reibel (1997); David Card (2001); a
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The net immigration rate can be tak
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is S 0. It establishes an equilibri
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consequence a highly elastic supply
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in the populous fourteen states of
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out were both at work in this case
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Figure 7 identifies what we call
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Figure 9. Total Net In-Migration an
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Figure 10. Dynamic Economy ModelFig
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6. ConclusionThe dynamic and open e
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ReferencesAbowd, J.M., and R. Freem
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1999 “Historical perspectives on
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Hatton, T., and J.G. Williamson1998
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White, M.J. and Y. Imai1994 “The
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seasonal basis, to areas with more
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for agricultural labor were 15 and
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3. Why People MoveThe decision to m
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producers are facing heavy losses a
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in Mumbai, which capitalizes on peo
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In conclusion, migration can bring
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is also being experienced in many r
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ReferencesBal Kumar, K.C.2003 “Mi
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Lipton, M.1980 “Migration from ru
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Shylendra, H.S., and P. Thomas1995
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182Able-bodied men.Women migrateonl
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Majority of (ST)Baiga and Ghondsmig
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Single caste villageof (OBC) Dhimar
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9A Socio-Cultural Perspective on Mi
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of households reported having at le
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Drawing on these perspectives, I ar
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migration tend to imitate the behav
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What is presented below is therefor
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ate of exchange and was thus sent t
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which was an important consideratio
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some migrants had started chitties,
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The extended family constituted a c
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much individuals had “locked up i
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edistribution were enforced through
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and the definition of status in eac
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perceived, the status-seeking activ
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Engelbrektsson, U.1978 The force of
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Parry, J. and M. Bloch1989 “Intro
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10Migrant Workers’ Remittances an
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in labor migration emerged after, a
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husband and wife, four daughters an
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(Table 3). In the central and weste
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Table 5. Composition of Rural House
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Figure 3. Rural households’ Net I
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schistosomiasis, etc. This decline
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of them deposit the money in a bank
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to train new rural migrants in the
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Figure 4. Per Capita Temittance in
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ReferencesBai Nansheng et al.2002
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Lu Mai et al.2002 “Zhongguo nongc
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Xinhuanet2002 “Woguo Zhongxibu la
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agriculture (Cook 1999), producing
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evenue (MR) minus the marginal cost
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Before reform, the annual quota of
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Table 2 Regional Distribution of In
Page 256 and 257: Figure 3. Sources of China’s Econ
Page 258 and 259: migration are removed, all wage and
Page 260 and 261: urban-biased policies persisted, pr
Page 262 and 263: eform. Under the hukou system, Chin
Page 264 and 265: The institutional barriers faced by
Page 266 and 267: ecause of the rapid migration of th
Page 268 and 269: Migrant workers have hardly any opp
Page 270 and 271: ReferencesAu, Chun-Chung, and Verno
Page 272 and 273: Lin, Justin, Gewei Wang, and Yaohui
Page 275 and 276: 12International Migration and Devel
Page 277 and 278: 2. BackgroundThe recent rise in int
Page 279 and 280: of remittances: self-employment, a
Page 281 and 282: Given the size of recent emigration
Page 283 and 284: 5. Remittances: An OverviewTable 1
Page 285 and 286: interpret. Some of it may be caused
Page 287 and 288: 8. A Decision to Repatriate MoneyIn
Page 289 and 290: emittances in the year prior to the
Page 291 and 292: fourth one, Xiamen, is in Fujian Pr
Page 293 and 294: ReferencesAdelman, I., J.E. Taylor,
Page 295 and 296: Massey, D.1988 “International mig
Page 297 and 298: AppendixTable 1. Village-Level Remi
Page 299 and 300: Table 4. Logistic Regression Models
Page 305: 13Remittances in the Latin American
Page 309 and 310: Finally, mulas may be sporadic trav
Page 311 and 312: has left from countries in Western
Page 313 and 314: Table 2: Remittances and Key Econom
Page 315 and 316: Source: National Money Transmitters
Page 317 and 318: One way this redistributive effect
Page 319 and 320: Managua reported having a relative
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Page 323 and 324: Table 9 Frequency of Immigrant Trav
Page 325 and 326: Guyana offers an interesting exampl
Page 327 and 328: In addition to exports of these goo
Page 329 and 330: Hemisphere. Figure 7 refers to the
Page 331 and 332: alternatives. Five years ago, it wa
Page 333 and 334: concentration is pronounced, innova
Page 335 and 336: emittance recipients have a higher
Page 337 and 338: AppendixData Methodology on Pricing
Page 339 and 340: Fagen, P., and M. Bump2005 “Remit
Page 341: 2003 Receptores de remesas en Ecuad
Page 345 and 346: 14A Framework for Linking and Compa
Page 347 and 348: to jobs, savings, and networks that
Page 349 and 350: were expanding. That “flooding”
Page 351 and 352: ural families to repay debts, satis
Page 353 and 354: ut case studies, including that of
Page 355 and 356: would do well to examine how variou
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Carter and Sutch challenge the argu
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networks combine internal and inter
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4. Policy ImplicationsWhat implicat
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government should improve migrant w
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challenge for development practitio
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community members could help to cla
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itself). While research and analysi
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