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frame this discussion by examining research that is similarly focused onthe level of families, communities, and regions. While the research andanalyses presented in this volume’s different essays were not designedfor the purpose of such comparisons, identifying mutually relevantperspectives suggests the kinds of issues and insights that might be pursedthrough intentionally comparative research in the future.3.1 Impacts on Sending LocationsAlthough researchers investigating the impact of internal and internationallabor migration on development have focused on similar issues regardingthe economic impacts of remittances sent home by workers, they haverarely drawn from one another’s perspectives. Common issues include theimpact of remittances used for purposes of consumption and investment,and the contexts within which one or the other can promote development.To consider different perspectives that research on internal and internationalmigration can offer, we first examine what pairs of essays on internaland international migration in India and China suggest about the use ofremittances by rural families and communities. We then turn to what anational-level study of remittances in Latin America and the Caribbeansuggests regarding the market contexts that enable remittances to spurenterprise creation and growth.348What can researchers of internal and international migration contributeto one another’s interpretations of the role of remittances in sustainingthe consumption and livelihoods of rural families and communities? Thechapters of Priya Deshingkar and Prema Kurien approach the issue ofremittance-based consumption through research focused respectively onIndian internal and international migration. Both researchers examinemigration that is short term or circular in that the migrants return homewhen their employment terminates – e.g., at the end of a season or anoverseas contract – rather than settling permanently in the place ofdestination. Deshingkar focuses on rural workers who migrate in searchof jobs in other rural and urban areas as a means of supplementing theiragricultural livelihoods. She argues that circular migration, while notuniformly positive in outcome, enables a low estimate of thirty millionpoor people, particularly members of lower castes and scheduled tribes, toobtain earnings sufficient to escape poverty or at least somewhat improvetheir circumstances. Faced with high population density, a scarcity ofcultivable land, inequitable land distribution, low agricultural productivity,frequent droughts, declining commodity prices linked to liberalized trade,and other problems, marginalized and landless farmers leave their villagesfor temporary employment in rural or urban jobs . These earnings enable
ural families to repay debts, satisfy consumption needs, and pay forfestivals, marriages, and other ceremonies. Studies in different regionshave found that migrant earnings can account for between 23 to 48 percentof household income. Migrants’ earnings also enable household membersto spend more on food than non-migrant households, sustain agriculturalproduction, and sometimes to enlarge their assets, though meetingconsumption needs seems to take priority over increasing productivecapacity. Thus, in the absence of opportunities to diversify their incomeslocally, Deshingkar argues that rural Indians are increasingly using circularmigration to protect and sustain an increasingly difficult agricultural wayof life.To what extent does the beneficial impact of remittances in sustainingrural livelihoods depend on how they are shared and spent? AlthoughDeshingkar’s essay does not address this issue, Prema Kurien’s essay oninternational migrants from Kerala State, who take short-term contracts orinformal employment in the Persian Gulf, offers a helpful view regardingthe importance of ethnicity. To understand the contributions of consumptionbased on remittances, Kurien examines how ethnic identities, norms, andrelations lead families of different religions and occupations to adoptdifferent patterns in distributing and spending remittances. Her researchfound that relatively poor and low-skilled Muslims, who had engaged ininformal-sector employment overseas, supported religious activities anddistributed their earnings widely throughout their entire village in a mannerconsistent with Islamic charity and communal solidarity. Hindus from asecond village, who had been employed overseas as technicians, spentlarge sums on life-cycle rituals and entertainment within narrower extendedfamily networks and with an eye toward improving familial status. Finally,Christians from a third village, who worked in semiprofessional positionsoverseas, tended to focus still more narrowly on the nuclear family and toinvest their earnings for their children’s future advancement – to financedowries for daughters and professional education for sons. That ethnicityand occupation affect the extent to which international remittancesare disbursed across a community, shared between extended familymembers, or kept within a nuclear family would seem equally relevant indetermining the impact of the remittances of internal migrants in sustainingagricultural ways of life for the rural families and communities examinedby Deshingkar. Kurien’s broader argument, that understanding migration’simpact on development requires taking into account socio-cultural aswell as economic factors, also seems equally valid for internal as well asinternational migration. While the benefits of such an interdisciplinaryperspective may seem evident in principal, Kurien points out that it is notalways utilized in economic development research and policy making.349
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The opinions expressed in the repor
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Table of ContentsForeword1 Migratio
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Foreword
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UN recorded that 61 million migrant
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about this and other programmes. Se
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Introduction
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overseas ethnic markets; and the wa
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labor migration. This narrower topi
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narrowing income inequalities withi
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and 2004 has increased the urban po
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Connecting Internaland Internationa
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it comes to questions of migration
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internal and international migratio
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the larger cities. British ships we
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states. At present, as part of our
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36and one on international migratio
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perspective 3 that gives methodolog
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commercial, industrial and service
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taken place in migration flows. The
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to what was left of the original en
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sought refuge in Lima. It was not p
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husband who sought refuge and work
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that take place between migrants an
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to the flows of goods, resources an
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migration and close to Huancayo) or
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In some cases, families would regul
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Furthermore, the precise compositio
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This suggests that, instead of aimi
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Brynes, D.M.2003 Driving the State:
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1984 Miners, Peasants and Entrepren
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Werbner, P.1990 The Migration Proce
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Genealogy 1: Jiménez Family in 197
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Since the 1990s, there has been a b
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migrant receiving areas, 2 but focu
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well as discussing some of the cons
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carried to Ghana by migrants. 40 pe
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Table 2. Cost (in Euro) of Formal a
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home countries, for example, throug
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These insurance events can constitu
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Having people collect similar data
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people they knew. In fact, some of
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For migration research, this means
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ReferencesAppadurai, A.1996 Moderni
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Glick Schiller, N., and G. Fouron19
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Marcus, G.1995 “Ethnography in/of
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Portes, A., and J. DeWind2004 “A
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Stark, O., and D. Bloom1985 “The
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AppendixTable A.1. Two-country Tran
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initially entails high costs and ri
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To our knowledge, no study has esti
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2.1 Remittances and Income in Rural
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with its neat correspondence to the
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let z > 0 denote the predetermined
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Table 3. Gini Decomposition by Inco
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Table 4b. Gini Decomposition by Inc
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3.2 Effects of Migrant Remittances
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4. ConclusionsOur findings using na
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Knowles, J.C., and R.B. Anker1981
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Taylor, J.E.1992 “Remittances and
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124Table 2. Rural Mexico Household
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Central Region45Percentage of Villa
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128Figure 3. Relationship between P
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7Labor Market Flooding? Migrant Des
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Reibel (1997); David Card (2001); a
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The net immigration rate can be tak
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is S 0. It establishes an equilibri
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consequence a highly elastic supply
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in the populous fourteen states of
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out were both at work in this case
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Figure 7 identifies what we call
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Figure 9. Total Net In-Migration an
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Figure 10. Dynamic Economy ModelFig
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6. ConclusionThe dynamic and open e
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ReferencesAbowd, J.M., and R. Freem
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1999 “Historical perspectives on
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Hatton, T., and J.G. Williamson1998
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White, M.J. and Y. Imai1994 “The
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seasonal basis, to areas with more
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for agricultural labor were 15 and
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3. Why People MoveThe decision to m
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producers are facing heavy losses a
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in Mumbai, which capitalizes on peo
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In conclusion, migration can bring
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is also being experienced in many r
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ReferencesBal Kumar, K.C.2003 “Mi
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Lipton, M.1980 “Migration from ru
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Shylendra, H.S., and P. Thomas1995
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182Able-bodied men.Women migrateonl
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Majority of (ST)Baiga and Ghondsmig
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Single caste villageof (OBC) Dhimar
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9A Socio-Cultural Perspective on Mi
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of households reported having at le
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Drawing on these perspectives, I ar
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migration tend to imitate the behav
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What is presented below is therefor
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ate of exchange and was thus sent t
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which was an important consideratio
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some migrants had started chitties,
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The extended family constituted a c
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much individuals had “locked up i
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edistribution were enforced through
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and the definition of status in eac
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perceived, the status-seeking activ
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Engelbrektsson, U.1978 The force of
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Parry, J. and M. Bloch1989 “Intro
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10Migrant Workers’ Remittances an
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in labor migration emerged after, a
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husband and wife, four daughters an
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(Table 3). In the central and weste
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Table 5. Composition of Rural House
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Figure 3. Rural households’ Net I
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schistosomiasis, etc. This decline
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of them deposit the money in a bank
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to train new rural migrants in the
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Figure 4. Per Capita Temittance in
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ReferencesBai Nansheng et al.2002
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Lu Mai et al.2002 “Zhongguo nongc
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Xinhuanet2002 “Woguo Zhongxibu la
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agriculture (Cook 1999), producing
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evenue (MR) minus the marginal cost
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Before reform, the annual quota of
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Table 2 Regional Distribution of In
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Figure 3. Sources of China’s Econ
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migration are removed, all wage and
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urban-biased policies persisted, pr
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eform. Under the hukou system, Chin
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The institutional barriers faced by
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ecause of the rapid migration of th
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Migrant workers have hardly any opp
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ReferencesAu, Chun-Chung, and Verno
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Lin, Justin, Gewei Wang, and Yaohui
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12International Migration and Devel
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2. BackgroundThe recent rise in int
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of remittances: self-employment, a
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Given the size of recent emigration
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5. Remittances: An OverviewTable 1
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interpret. Some of it may be caused
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8. A Decision to Repatriate MoneyIn
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emittances in the year prior to the
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fourth one, Xiamen, is in Fujian Pr
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ReferencesAdelman, I., J.E. Taylor,
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Massey, D.1988 “International mig
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AppendixTable 1. Village-Level Remi
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Page 305 and 306: 13Remittances in the Latin American
Page 307 and 308: to anti-money laundering and suspic
Page 309 and 310: Finally, mulas may be sporadic trav
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Page 313 and 314: Table 2: Remittances and Key Econom
Page 315 and 316: Source: National Money Transmitters
Page 317 and 318: One way this redistributive effect
Page 319 and 320: Managua reported having a relative
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Page 323 and 324: Table 9 Frequency of Immigrant Trav
Page 325 and 326: Guyana offers an interesting exampl
Page 327 and 328: In addition to exports of these goo
Page 329 and 330: Hemisphere. Figure 7 refers to the
Page 331 and 332: alternatives. Five years ago, it wa
Page 333 and 334: concentration is pronounced, innova
Page 335 and 336: emittance recipients have a higher
Page 337 and 338: AppendixData Methodology on Pricing
Page 339 and 340: Fagen, P., and M. Bump2005 “Remit
Page 341: 2003 Receptores de remesas en Ecuad
Page 345 and 346: 14A Framework for Linking and Compa
Page 347 and 348: to jobs, savings, and networks that
Page 349: were expanding. That “flooding”
Page 353 and 354: ut case studies, including that of
Page 355 and 356: would do well to examine how variou
Page 357 and 358: Carter and Sutch challenge the argu
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Page 361 and 362: 4. Policy ImplicationsWhat implicat
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Page 367 and 368: community members could help to cla
Page 369: itself). While research and analysi
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