Self-Esteem Research, Theory, and Practice Toward a Positive ...

64 SELF-ESTEEM RESEARCH, THEORY, AND PRACTICEPARENTAL FACTORSGeneticsOne of the newest trends to appear in the field of self-esteem is the studyof possible genetic foundations. Developmental psychology has been interestedin how genetics affects the development of temperament and personalityfor some time now, and its research methods have become quitesophisticated over the past decade or so. Thus, although it was surprisingto see work of this type while researching this edition, it makes sense thatthe genetic tree should be examined in terms of branches that affect selfesteemjust as they have for so many other aspects of human behavior.Neiss, Stevenson, and Sedikides (2003) reviewed this small but growingbody of literature. In general, they concluded that genetic influencesaccount for 30–40% of the variance among self-esteem levels in siblings.Non-shared environmental factors, such as play, school, peers, work, andso forth, account for the largest portion of the remaining variance, andshared environmental factors explain a relatively small amount of it.More specifically, biology appears to bring with it certain predispositionssuch as energy level, basic temperament, and certain physical,social, and cognitive abilities (or the lack of them). If an individual is fortunateenough to be born into a family or culture that appreciates his orher particular constellation of characteristics and abilities, then a goodperson–environment fit is likely to occur. All things considered, in thiscase it should be fairly easy to be valued as a worthy person and toacquire the competence necessary for self-esteem. If one is not such agenetic winner, then one’s self-esteem story is much more likely to be difficultor at least complex. Although it is important not to make too muchof genetic predispositions, they can no longer be ignored in this field.Parental Support (Involvement)Parental involvement was one of the first antecedents of self-esteem toreceive attention (Coopersmith, 1967) and still does today. Usually, supportiveparental involvement is presented as a positive force. For example,Gecas (1971) noted that support from mother correlated more withdeveloping a sense of worth in children, where support from fatherseemed to be tied more to the development of competence. He also notedthat middle class fathers tend to spend more time with their children thanworking class parents, which increases opportunities for supportiveengagement. Burger (1995) pointed out that the efficacious feelings associatedwith mastery are helpful in the development of self-esteem, andthat parents who encourage their children offer more positive supportthan those who do not. Other work noted the importance of support by