Self-Esteem Research, Theory, and Practice Toward a Positive ...

142 SELF-ESTEEM RESEARCH, THEORY, AND PRACTICEto self-esteem. According to Harter’s theory, if the lack of competence orworthiness is related to such difficulties, then it should be possible to workon them in corrective ways and thereby alleviate many self-esteem–relatedproblems.System and TechniquesHarter begins by noting that, historically, there are two generalapproaches to enhancing self-esteem. One is to focus on increasing a senseof worth as a person, which is characteristic of the self-enhancementapproach that we saw the self-esteem movement embrace. In this case,the aim is to make the person feel better about themselves so that theywill be more interested in functioning effectively. This approach was especiallycommon among educators and, as we have seen, led to harsh criticismsof the field. The other approach, called “skills enhancement,”focuses on helping people to acquire the skills that are necessary to beeffective in life, which, in theory, leads to degrees of competence. Popeand colleagues took this approach, and it seems to be drawing moreadherents today, especially in educational settings. Harter also takes thispath and builds her program around three things: assessing the individual,tailoring interventions to behavioral domains that are important tothe particular person, and using various cognitive and social techniquesto enhance competence and worth or self-esteem.Assessment plays a key role in this approach for reasons that aresimilar to those that influenced Pope and colleagues’ program. If selfesteemis understood as being connected to various domains of living,then it is necessary to have an idea of how a particular individual is functioningin them to spot areas of difficulty. It is also important to identifyareas in which the individual is doing well because in this approach workingwith strengths is just as important as working on weaknesses.Similarly, if self-esteem is seen as being influenced by social forces andsignificant others, then it is helpful to know the major characters in aperson’s life, especially who is helpful and who is not. In short, a multidimensionalmodel of self-esteem that is tied to development requires amultidimensional assessment of the individual that is based on norms foreach major stage of life. Once assessment is complete, areas of concernare identified and potential strengths are clarified. Then, this informationis used to develop a treatment strategy that is tailored to the person’s specificneeds. The clinician may select from a number of treatment techniquesdepending on what assessment reveals, but they can generally bedivided into two categories that reflect the basic structure of self-esteem.The first set of techniques is termed “Intervention Strategies Directedat Cognitive Determinants” (Harter, 1999, p. 316). The general strategy