Self-Esteem Research, Theory, and Practice Toward a Positive ...

In addition to developing a systematic approach to enhancing selfesteem,Frey and Carlock note that there are at least three significantpractical issues to consider that are almost always present in helpingpeople change. The first is called resistance and it concerns dealing withthe usual technical problems associated with change in general as well asthose explicitly associated with changing self-esteem. Next, they focus onthe role of, and need for, assessment in changing self-esteem. They note,for instance, that self-esteem issues vary considerably from person toperson, which means the clinician must become attuned to differences inparticipants and make appropriate adjustments, a process that is facilitatedby accurate assessment. Finally, Frey and Carlock recognize thatchanging self-esteem is a difficult, long-term project: “The changeprocess, like much of human learning, is erratic. Improvement can be followedby a slight regression, which is in turn, followed by improvement.This process repeats itself until some stabilization of changed behavioroccurs” (p. 213). Ultimately, then, the entire system is based on persistenceand hard work.SummaryOne outstanding feature of this approach to enhancing self-esteem isthat the program is broken into clearly defined steps, each one of whichincludes specific objectives and concrete activities. Moreover, thesesteps progress in an extremely logical fashion and the exercises arebased on fairly common therapeutic or growth-oriented activities.Finally, it is important to note that this program is flexible, which meansthat it may be applied in a number of clinical and growth settings.Increasing Self-Esteem Behaviorally: Pope, McHale,and CraigheadBasic IdeasMajor Self-Esteem Theories and Programs 131Alice Pope, Susan McHale, and W. Edward Craighead’s approach actuallyfocuses on working with children and adolescents, even those whoexcel academically but still have low self-esteem. It also addresses theneeds of various challenged populations. However, this system is basedon social learning theory, which means that change occurs on the basis ofgeneral and specific learning principles that apply to all ages. Thisapproach begins by defining self-esteem as “an evaluation of the informationcontained in the self-concept, and is derived from a child’s feelingsabout all the things he is” (p. 2).Like most social and learning approaches to self-esteem, this way ofunderstanding it is based on a discrepancy notion: the difference between