Self-Esteem Research, Theory, and Practice Toward a Positive ...

Major Self-Esteem Theories and Programs 113According to the humanistic perspective, self-esteem emerges naturallyin the course of development, providing an individual receives a sufficientdegree of “unconditional positive regard” (Rogers, 1951),especially when young. The importance of self-esteem in the humanistictradition is also seen through its absence. For example, Rogers pointedout that when people have more conditional positive regard than unconditionalappreciation, their self-esteem becomes contingent on reachinggoals that others set for them or on the approval of others, either of whichblunts their development. And Maslow noted that if an individual doesnot develop adequate self-esteem, then he or she is “stuck” in that stageof the hierarchy. In that case, much of the person’s behavior becomesaimed at either reaching this goal or compensating for it in some negativefashion. In general, then, humanistic psychology sees self-esteem as necessary,if not central, for self-actualization, which is seen as the greatest“good” in this approach.Although not a traditional humanistic psychologist, Branden (1969)carried its themes into his “Objectivist” approach and made self-esteema popular topic. In this case, self-esteem is seen as a basic human needthat is tied to our highest capacities: reason, choice, and responsibility.Man experiences his desire for self-esteem as an urgent imperative, asa basic need. Whether he identifies the issue explicitly or not, he cannotescape the feeling that his estimate of himself is of life-and-deathimportance. No one can be indifferent to the question of how he judgeshimself; his nature does not allow man this option. (p. 110)Thus, self-esteem is seen as a need that drives human behavior intwo ways. First, Branden stated that we are not born with the knowledgeof what fills the need, which means that we must find out about thatthrough trial and error: “Man’s need of self-esteem is inherent in hisnature. But he is not born with the knowledge of what will satisfy thatneed, or of the standard by which self-esteem is to be gauged; he mustdiscover it” (Branden, 1969, p. 110). In other words, we learn aboutcompetence and worthiness through our highest human faculties: reason,choice, and responsibility. This process, as Branden described it, involvesexercising one’s conscious ability to assess situations realistically and torespond to them in a way that is consistent with basic or fundamentalhuman values. Living rationally in this way brings certain powerfulpositive feelings that are right “in principle” (p. 110). Happiness, joy,pleasure, and self-acceptance are seen as natural responses to living suchan authentic existence.Second, like most humanistic psychologists, in addition to motivatingus in such a positive, rational, humane, and actualizing direction,