Self-Esteem Research, Theory, and Practice Toward a Positive ...

Major Self-Esteem Research Findings 91expansion, and increasing one’s self-esteem, while self-maintenancefocuses on not losing what one has. The two engender different behavioralstrategies” (1982, p. 21). Thus, on one hand, some researchers andclinicians (e.g., Bednar, Wells & Peterson, 1989; Leary & Downs, 1995;Mecca, Smelser & Vasconcellos, 1989; Wells & Marwell, 1976) will talkabout self-esteem in relation to the maintenance of the self, which is oftendone in terms of self-consistency theory. In this case, self-esteem helps tomaintain a steady state of inner experience in both active and passiveways. For example, self-esteem appears to act as a shield against the slingsand arrows of life, especially when one is under stress. Even Baumeisterand colleagues described this aspect of self-esteem as providing “a stockof positive feelings that can be a valuable resource under some conditions”(2003, p. 37). Sometimes, however, that resource is inadequate orbecomes exhausted. When that happens, one experiences a drop in selfesteem.If it is a need, then this development should result in a state ofdeprivation, which, in turn, motivates the person to take action aimed atrestoring self-esteem. Others within this camp suggest that the regulatoryfunction of self-esteem is more social in nature. For example, Leary’swork (2004a) supporting Sociometer Theory indicates that people experiencea drop in self-esteem when they engage in behavior that is likely toresult in social rejection or exclusion. The feelings associated with such adrop not only help us avoid social rejection in the first place but alsoprompt us to engage in restorative behaviors when we have strayed too faroff the social path, thereby regulating interpersonal as well as intrapersonalbehavior.On the other hand, another group understands self-esteem in relationto a need for personal growth and development or self-enhancement.Here, self-esteem is seen as a growth motive instead of a deficiency motiveto paraphrase Maslow (1968). Such a motivational picture of self-esteemwas seen in psychodynamic literature in terms of White’s work on competencementioned earlier. However, it is also found in developmentalapproaches to self-esteem (Harter, 1999) as well as in humanistic theory,particularly that of Maslow and Rogers who definitely understood selfesteemas a basic human need. In this case, self-esteem is seen as propellingthe individual toward taking risks as a way of increasingcompetence and worthiness instead of just maintaining it. As such, selfesteembecomes connected to authenticity: Instead of moving backwardor taking the easy way out, self-esteem pushes people toward the futurein a more creative, open, or actualizing way.It is easy to see how both sides of this paradox are of value, so itshould not be surprising to find that people have worked on integratingthem in a coherent fashion. For example, White (1959, 1963) attemptedto do that under the notion of “effectance,” which is an inborn motivation