Self-Esteem Research, Theory, and Practice Toward a Positive ...

A Meaning-Based, Two-Factor Theory of Self-Esteem 173small (which would be represented by a +1) to large (+10). Failure wouldrange in the opposite direction. We would expect varying degrees of positiveaffective states to accompany increases and negative ones to be associatedwith decreases because of the pleasure associated with mastery andthe pain associated with failure. Likewise, the way acceptance–rejectionaffects self-esteem is compatible with the worthiness–unworthinessdimension of the matrix in the same fashion. The beginning and endingof a love relationship, for example, could be an example of such a situationand their significance for self-esteem could be placed higher or loweron the vertical axis of the matrix, respectively.Finally, the meaning matrix integrates other important dimensionsof self-esteem that we have seen, such as in the research on gender andculture. It is possible to understand these phenomena in terms of the fundamentalstructure of self-esteem and place such findings in the matrix aswell. In this case, one would say that, just as society influences othervalues, the forces of socialization can influence which component of selfesteemis most important for a given group. Indeed, the work that wecovered on culture and self-esteem shows that entire societies exhibit similarpatterns, with one culture emphasizing competence more than worthinessand vice versa. At the same time, it is important to note that suchvariations are always a matter of degree, not structure. Harter (1999),Epstein (1979), and Tafarodi and Swann Jr. (1996) clearly remind us thatboth genders and all cultures value and need competence and worthinessto develop and maintain self-esteem.Significant life events can also affect self-esteem. For instance, severalself-esteem researchers have examined self-esteem–related eventsthat seem to occur primarily in adulthood. Epstein (1979), Mruk (1983),and Jackson (1984) examined particularly intense self-esteem momentsthat can be understood in terms of the fundamental structure of selfesteemrepresented by the matrix. These experiences seem to involve auniquely powerful kind of self-esteem moment that occurs only in situationswith two key characteristics. First, these self-esteem moments beginwith a fairly ordinary conflict in the everyday world of a given individual.Second, these conflicts quickly and deeply mobilize problematic selfesteemthemes, which seem to follow one into adulthood. When bothtypes of conflict become active at the same time, self-esteem appears to beput “at stake” in a way that means it can be either won or lost. Jackson(1984) likened these self-esteem conflicts to Freud’s notion of the repetitioncompulsion, meaning that we are doomed to repeat them until weget them right. We can also understand such situations phenomenologicallyin terms of the meaning-making function of self-esteem and its relationto authenticity. This approach has the additional value of opening upa whole line of supportive research.