Self-Esteem Research, Theory, and Practice Toward a Positive ...

Major Self-Esteem Research Findings 97(TSCS) (Roid & Fitts, 1988), and the Piers–Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale (P-HCSCS) (Piers & Harris, 1969). Other frequently usedinstruments include the Culture Free Self-Esteem Inventory (CFSEI)(Battle, 1992), the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory’s Self-Esteem Scale (MMPI-2) (Hathaway et al., 1989), the PerceivedCompetence Scale for Children (PCSC) (Harter, 1985), the Adult Self-Perception Scale (ASPS) (Messer & Harter, 1986), the MultidimensionalSelf-Esteem Inventory (MSEI) (O’Brien & Epstein, 1983, 1988), and theSelf-Liking/Self-Competence Scale (SLSC) (Tafarodi & Swann Jr., 1995).We have seen that unidimensional measures are inadequate, which narrowsthe list down to a handful. Similarly, we understand self-esteem interms of competence and worthiness, which reduces the list even further.These requirements result in a limited set of instruments: limited, butgood ones in that they are “measuring the right thing” as discussed inChapter 2. They are the SLSC, the MSEI, and the PCSC/ASPS each ofwhich has its own strengths and weaknesses.The SLSC might be the measure of choice for doing research on selfesteemwhere large numbers of subjects are involved because of itsbrevity. The test meets our basic criteria and is easy to administer, take,and score, thereby making it a fairly non-intrusive measure. The MSEI isa multidimensional instrument that measures domains of self-esteem andincludes a global self-esteem scale that is independent from them. Thisinstrument also has one more characteristic that sets it apart from others:It includes a defensiveness scale that helps avoid mistaking various typesof responses for those that express genuine self-esteem. This indicator isuseful in identifying scores that reflect such things as the ceiling effect,social desirability, or “false positives” such as those who are presentingthemselves as though they have high self-esteem but who are actuallyliving fragile, unstable, or inauthentic forms of it. The only other selfesteemtest of which I am aware that offers this possibility is the one thatis included in the MMPI and that test is extremely time consuming to use.Finally, the various versions of the PCSC and ASPS also assess domainsof self-esteem as well as including a global measure. In addition, theyhave the advantage of being normalized for developmental issues andresponses for all the basic age groups of the life span.EFFECTIVE SELF-ESTEEM ENHANCEMENT TECHNIQUESBecause this book aims to move from research through theory to practice,the last task we have in a chapter that focuses on identifying majorfindings concerning self-esteem is to look for work that concerns enhancingself-esteem at the lived level. This area is one of the newest in the field,