Self-Esteem Research, Theory, and Practice Toward a Positive ...

170 SELF-ESTEEM RESEARCH, THEORY, AND PRACTICEmuch less effort than actively exploring them. Although each perspectiveunderstands the development of worthiness from a different angle, it isusually emphasized early in the process of growth. For example, White(1959) talked about “loveworthiness” and identification with parentalfigures or objects. Coopersmith (1967) connected worthiness to variouspatterns of parenting. Rosenberg (1965) spoke of “reflected appraisals,”humanists focused on being accepted “unconditionally” (Rogers, 1961)as having a major impact on our worthiness, and so on. In a certain sense,then, the first source of worthiness we encounter, and perhaps also thefirst source of self-esteem, is being valued by others. Also, later on in lifeit is important to accept ourselves to achieve authentic self-esteem, buteven that task is made easier if we have had “good enough” (Winnicott,1953) acceptance in the first place.Middle Childhood and the Emergenceof Self-Esteem in AdolescenceCompetence is also a part of infancy, but it usually takes much longer todevelop. Although parents and families are typically accepting of childrenand their abilities in the early years of life, the world of middle childhoodis an unforgiving place by comparison. It is filled with evaluationsof motor, social, intellectual, personality, and behavior characteristics.The classroom, the playground, and many peer-related activities arearenas for a comparison of abilities and traits according to the externaland usually less accepting standards of teachers and peers. After all, whohas not experienced the effect of being picked first for a team, or last?The latency period (ages 7–11) is the most crucial stage for the developmentof self-esteem because this is when children discover, become knownby, and eventually identify with, their abilities and characteristics. Nowonder self-esteem work with children often involves evaluating theirfunctioning in the social, athletic, and cognitive domains (Harter, 1999;Harter & Whitesell, 2003; Pope, McHale & Craighead, 1988). Thesetrials of “industry versus inferiority” (Erikson, 1983) set the foundationsfor the other factor that is necessary for self-esteem, which is the developmentof competence.Age seems to be especially important during this period in the developmentof self-esteem. Each year seems to bring with it a range of newchallenges at living and more sophisticated standards in play, with friends,at school, and so on. During this extended developmental time, the childhas many successes and failures both great and small. Eventually, certainpatterns develop and the child finds that he or she is relatively competentin certain kinds of tasks or areas and less so in others. Some of these skillsare valued as being more worthy than others, which means that there is