Self-Esteem Research, Theory, and Practice Toward a Positive ...

Social ValuesAnother set of findings concerns the way more socially derived valuesaffect self-esteem. Historically, there has been debate between two aspectsof this dimension of values and self-esteem (Rosenberg, 1979). The“stratification hypothesis” links self-esteem and levels of self-esteem togeneral social groups such as socioeconomic class. The other, called the“subcultural hypothesis,” links self-esteem more closely to primary socialgroups such as the neighborhood. Like many debates in the social sciences,the answer to the question of which view is right is “both”because each set of factors are active. Researchers recognize a consistent,albeit weak, link between self-esteem and general social class in theexpected direction (Coopersmith, 1967; Mack, 1987; Rosenberg, 1965;Schneiderman, Furman & Weber, 1989; Twenge & Campbell, 2002).At the same time, there is agreement among most of the same authorsthat social factors within a subcultural group are more influential indetermining a group member’s particular self-experience than the generalsocial values of the larger society: These “local” values are formedearlier, experienced more directly, and reinforced more frequently, sothey tend to have a stronger influence. For instance, the family andneighborhood are seen as being a particularly powerful source of selfesteem-relatedvalues, particularly if people stay in touch with theirroots over time.Self-ValuesMajor Self-Esteem Research Findings 69Although values are certainly set in a social context, the individual alsoplays a role in the relationship between self-esteem and values, especiallyin terms of “self-values” (Pope, McHale & Craighead, 1988; Rosenberg,1965). Self-values, which are “the conceptions of the desirable that representthe individual’s criteria for self-judgment” (Rosenberg, 1965, p. 15),are important for self-esteem because they connect it to one’s identitywhich, in turn, creates a relationship between self-esteem and behavior.However, these values concerning that which is good and desirable arebased more on direct, meaningful, and individual experience than aresocial or even sub-cultural values. Self-values are, therefore, more personalin the sense that they affect us directly, and because they help giveus a sense of self-sameness or identity as a unique person, regardless ofsocial class or background.Research also shows that certain types of experiences can changeself-values in ways that affect identity, self-esteem, and behavior. Forexample, Epstein’s research suggests that “there are certain experiencesthat can be a turning point in an individual’s existence” (1979, p. 73).In this case, 270 subjects were asked to fill out forms that required them