Self-Esteem Research, Theory, and Practice Toward a Positive ...

146 SELF-ESTEEM RESEARCH, THEORY, AND PRACTICEapproaches to increasing self-esteem? Knowing about the essentialcomponents of such a process is important in two ways: This type ofinformation may be helpful in developing a phenomenological ormeaning-based program and such findings may help us to evaluate thequality of a program with regard to existing standards of practice. First,data indicate that there is theoretical consistency between the majorapproaches to enhancing self-esteem and the general theories of selfesteemthat they represent or on which they are founded. For example,Frey and Carlock’s approach is based on a definition of self-esteem thatis compatible with Branden’s humanistic formulation and many, if notmost, of their growth-oriented techniques are humanistic. Pope and colleaguesclearly build on social learning theory and practice, which is seenin Rosenberg’s and Coopersmith’s theories. Harter’s work has its roots inboth traditions, which means that it reflects the two-factor school. Bednarand associates identify their program as being cognitive and existential,and the techniques they suggest for enhancing self-esteem seem to becompatible with both points of view. The point is that major self-esteemenhancement programs tend to have logical, identifiable ties to generaltheories of self-esteem, which, in turn, are connected to even larger theoreticalperspectives in social science. A good self-esteem enhancementprogram is, then, set within the context of a general theory of humanbehavior.Second, an examination of data presented in this chapter suggeststhat self-esteem enhancement programs are systematic. Good programsare structured in a programmatic or stepwise fashion. In each case, theprogram is organized according to clearly defined stages. Furthermore,these steps are always arranged sequentially to produce a cumulativeeffect when executed properly. Moreover, each phase is organized in aparticular way: Any given step in any particular program aims at a reasonablyclear goal and includes a specific set of therapeutic activitiesdesigned to help the client reach it. Additionally, major programsinvolve common processes. The more notable ones include increasingawareness of the importance of self-esteem, dealing with defensivenessand resistance to change, changing self-defeating behaviors, and acquiringnew competencies. When seen phenomenologically, each programstands as a path toward self-esteem that, if followed properly, will eventuallylead people to higher levels of competence and worthiness. In short,enhancing self-esteem can be a specific, perhaps even specialized, therapeuticenterprise.Third, each major self-esteem enhancement program recognizes theimportance of assessment. This component can be included as an informalprocess as in Frey and Carlock or in Bednar and colleagues, or as a formalone as seen in Pope and colleagues or in Harter. Moreover, assessment