Self-Esteem Research, Theory, and Practice Toward a Positive ...

Major Self-Esteem Research Findings 87Coopersmith (1959, 1967) who hold that medium self-esteem is simplythe result of not having had enough exposure to the developmental factorsthat lead to high self-esteem, but of also having more than enoughexposure to such factors to avoid having low self-esteem. However,others regard medium self-esteem as a distinct type with its own uniquecharacteristics (Block & Thomas, 1955; Cole, Oetting & Hinkle, 1967;Weissman & Ritter, 1970).For various reasons, the literature concerning medium self-esteemhas not grown rapidly. However, this situation may need to change for atleast one important reason that is most clearly found in assessing selfesteem.Most measures of it are constructed so that they assess three basicgroups: people with low-self-esteem, individuals with high self-esteem,and everyone else. It is important to emphasize the extremes, of course, tohelp people with low self-esteem and to learn from those who have it inabundance. However, it is also important to realize that the vast majorityis found in the middle range. If we genuinely wish to be true to the phenomenon,and if medium self-esteem occurs most often at this level in thelife world, then we need to do much more in terms of understanding howit is normatively and normally lived by most people most of the time.Levels and Types of Self-EsteemThinking in terms of types is not only more complicated now, butresearch is also indicating that the level of self-esteem a person holdswithin types can change as well. The easiest way to see this phenomenonmay be in the difference between global versus situational self-esteem(Harter, 1999). In this case, a person may hold one level of self-esteem inone domain or type of situation and a different level in another. However,levels can also vary in more complex ways. For example, Harter andWhitesell (2003) found that for some people, self-esteem is relativelystable but for others it varies considerably over time or in different situations,or both. Campbell (1999) noted that other factors could affect thelevel and stability of self-esteem such as what he called the “clarity” ofself-concept. Apparently, some individuals with uncertain, weak, or illdefinedself-concepts or identities are much more susceptible to negativefeedback or failure. This increased vulnerability may, in turn, affect theirlevel of self-esteem in a way that makes it unstable.In addition, there is emerging research suggesting that either high orlow self-esteem may be lived at two different levels in regard to one’s consciousawareness of it. One is called “explicit” self-esteem, which is one’sconscious experience of self-esteem, and the other is termed “implicit”self-esteem and is un- or non-conscious (Devos & Banaji, 2003). If so,then additional variations in levels of self-esteem may occur. For example,