Self-Esteem Research, Theory, and Practice Toward a Positive ...

A Meaning-Based, Two-Factor Theory of Self-Esteem 169THE DEVELOPMENT OF SELF-ESTEEMAs discussed earlier, self-esteem must be understood as a developmentalphenomenon and much work has been done in this area (Coopersmith,1967; Rosenberg, 1965; White, 1959). However, no one seems to havedone as much work on the development of self-esteem as Harter (1999,2003). Not only has she tied the development of self-esteem to cognitiveand social growth, but she has also extended this framework fromchildhood, through adolescence, and all the way to late adulthood aswell. Harter’s multidimensional approach is compatible with a twofactordefinition of self-esteem; the various dimensions of the theorycan be roughly equally divided between social factors associated withapproval or worth and behavioral factors associated with competencein various domains of life. Most of Harter’s efforts are dedicated tounderstanding the development of self-esteem in childhood or adolescenceand stands as a classic in the field. However, it is necessary to discusssome aspects concerning the development of self-esteem inadulthood. In particular, new research on authenticity and self-esteemin adulthood needs to be integrated here. Also, the clinical focus of thisbook is enhancing self-esteem in adulthood, which makes this areamore important for our purposes.Childhood “Precursors” of Self-EsteemErikson pointed out that identity is the central task of adolescence andPiaget found that this time is also when formal operational thinkingbegins. Both identity and advanced cognitive abilities are needed when itcomes to talking about the “self” in self-esteem, so I am reluctant to usethat term in regard to childhood. However, worthiness and competenceare components of self-esteem that are important while growing up, so itis necessary to make some observations on what might be seen as the“precursors” of self-esteem and the relationship that occurs between thecomponents over time. The only thing that is necessary to keep in mindis that considerable time must pass before individuals come to the pointat which they consciously “have” self-esteem in such a way that alsomeans they alone are responsible for managing it.Although both traits are connected to each other throughout development,it is likely that the worthiness dimension of self-esteem precedescompetence. For example, even before an infant is born, he or she isalready surrounded by a value-laden environment that structures what isperceived as good or bad, desirable or undesirable, attractive or unattractive,or worthy and unworthy in general. The infant is also more passivethan active at this time of life as being exposed to values requires