Self-Esteem Research, Theory, and Practice Toward a Positive ...

230 SELF-ESTEEM RESEARCH, THEORY, AND PRACTICEand Darwinian models of man and against its mechanistic, deterministic,and reductionist character” (Misiak & Sexton, 1973, p. 115). Takingissue with this approach at the deepest level, the editors of the Journal ofHumanistic Psychology defined humanistic psychology as the following:Primarily an orientation toward the whole of psychology rather than adistinct area or school. It stands for respect for the worth of persons,respect for differences of approach, open-mindedness as to acceptablemethods, and interest in exploration of new aspects of human behavior.As a “third force” in contemporary psychology it is concerned withtopics having little place in existing theories and systems; e.g., love, creativity,self, growth, organism, basic need-gratification, self-actualization,higher values, being, becoming, spontaneity, play, humor, affection, naturalness,warmth, ego-transcendence, objectivity, autonomy, responsibility,meaning, fairplay, transcendental experience, peak experience,courage, and related concepts. (Maslow, 1964, pp. 70–71)Instead of a rigid insistence on the strict use of naturalistic methods,the humanistic approach welcomed a diversity of methods by includingmore qualitative ones such as those discussed in Chapter 2.Humanistic psychology continues its original mission but hasmatured to the point that it is also characterized by a general set of positivepsychological themes, issues, and concerns that carve out a reasonablyclear, though not dominant, place in psychology. Tageson (1982)identified them as including a holistic approach to understanding the person(instead of a reductionistic approach), a concern with self-actualization(human development and the good life), self-determination (intrinsicmotivation and autonomy), authenticity (healthy psychological functioning),self-transcendence (especially in relationships with others), andperson-centeredness (appreciation of our essential humanity).Contemporary humanistic psychology also includes a focus ondeveloping more sophisticated methods for researching human experienceand behavior (Greenberg, Koole & Pyszczynski, 2004); severalrefereed scientific publications such as the Journal of HumanisticPsychology and the Humanistic Psychologist; and various professionalorganizations that support its efforts, including a division in theAmerican Psychological Association’s (APA) Division of HumanisticPsychology. In short, the humanistic approach is well established as thefirst organized form of positive psychology.There can be little doubt that self-esteem occupies a secure place inthe humanistic tradition and its view of positive psychology. For example,Maslow (1968) identified self-esteem as one of the basic developmentalissues that all human beings face. Indeed, so fundamental is thisneed that it is often characterized as a “D” or deficiency need, meaning