Self-Esteem Research, Theory, and Practice Toward a Positive ...

86 SELF-ESTEEM RESEARCH, THEORY, AND PRACTICEBartoletti & O’Brien 2003). More rigorous work on self-esteem and theeducational setting shows that high self-esteem is of positive value in thatcontext (Harter, Whitesell & Junkin, 1998). Finally, high self-esteem mayeven have long-term benefits. “Higher levels of self-esteem similarlyhave been found in other research to prospectively predict growth insocioemotional functioning among younger, preschool-age children . . .and, at the other end of the developmental continuum, decreased likelihoodof mortality among older adults” (Dubois & Flay, 2004, p. 416).Clearly, high self-esteem is linked to the good life: At least, it is preferableto low self-esteem, all criticisms notwithstanding.However, research also indicates that there are less than positive andeven distinctly negative characteristics associated with high self-esteemthat must be considered. For example, people with high self-esteem havebeen shown to place success over well-being and to demonstrate more ingroupfavoritism than others (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger & Vohs,2003; Crocker & Park, 2003). They may blame others for their ownshortcomings in relationships or engage in downward social comparisonsthat put others down personally (Crocker & Park, 2004; Harter, 1999).Some high self-esteeming individuals appear to think more highly of theirvalue to others in relationships than is actually deserved or they tend toovervalue the contributions they make in group situations (Baumeister,Campbell, Krueger & Vohs, 2003). In addition, high self-esteem has beenassociated with genuinely negative conditions, such as defensiveness(Crocker & Park, 2004; Epstein & Morling, 1995; Greenier, Kernis &Waschull, 1995; Jordan, Spencer, Zanna, Hoshino-Browne & Correll,2003; Kernis, 2003a), narcissism (Baumeister, Smart & Boden, 1996;Campbell, Rudich & Sedikides, 2002; Crocker & Park, 2003; Sedikideset al., 2004), and some categories of anti-social behavior such as bullying(Baumeister, Smart & Boden, 1996; Salmivalli, Kaukiainen &Lagerspetz, 1999).In sum, once again, we see that research on self-esteem has expandedconsiderably and has done so in a way that shows the limitation of thinkingin terms of simple types. In this case, the concept of “high self-esteem”has been found to be inadequate in terms of its descriptive power andusefulness because its characteristics may be positive or negative. Later inChapter 5, we will see if it is possible to deal with this problem by usingthe fundamental structure of self-esteem to clear up the confusion generatedby such heterogeneity.A Word about “Medium” Self-EsteemAt one time, there was considerable discussion of a type of self-esteemcalled “medium self-esteem.” For example, there are researchers such as