Self-Esteem Research, Theory, and Practice Toward a Positive ...

Major Self-Esteem Research Findings 103it should be possible for both therapist and client to see change, which isalways encouraging. Also, more seriously ill patients or clients with moredeeply embedded self-esteem problems often require more attention,which is possible in individual work. On the negative side, we know thatthis intensive, often long-term format requires considerable resources interms of clinical expertise, time, and money.The other major design format is to enhance self-esteem through thegroup setting, which is positive in a number of other ways (Bhatti,Derezotes, Kim & Specht, 1989; Burns, 1993a; Frey & Carlock, 1989;Mruk, 1995, 1999). For one thing, groups may be designed to meet theneeds of various populations. For instance, this format may be tailored toa number of clinical audiences. In this case most of the general rules forclinical groups apply such as screening clients carefully before admittingthem to such a group (Vinogradov & Yalom, 1989) and using co-therapistsof the opposite gender. In addition, groups may be designed to emphasizegrowth instead of remediation, which means they can be used with generalaudiences as well. In fact, such psychoeducational groups seem to becommon in the field because they can reach a broad range of people andages (Frey & Carlock, 1989). The basic structure of this form of groupwork seems to include a leader who acts as a therapist, facilitator, andteacher and a group size of 8–12 participants.Whether clinically or growth-oriented, the group format offers severalinteresting advantages. For example, groups are usually more costeffective, which is important when seen in the light of today’s mountinghealth care crisis. Hence, they can be used to address larger numbers ofpeople and people of limited income (Hakim-Larson & Mruk, 1997).Also, groups may seem less threatening to people who are put off by theidea of psychotherapy or to those who are simply interested in betteringthemselves and not having someone “dig around in their heads.” Most ofall, the group format can do some things better than the individual setting(Vinogradov & Yalom, 1989). The rich mixture of perception, experience,and individual style that comes from being around severaldifferent people more closely approximates the conditions of real lifethan does the individual treatment setting. For instance, a group situationusually presents a greater variety of “safe challenges” or here-and-nowopportunities to try out new pro–self-esteem behaviors, such as communicatingmore effectively or being more assertive. Groups also bring inmore of the social factors affecting self-esteem such as offering moreopportunities for positive feedback, acceptance, and healthy modeling.Finally, they can offer a sense of camaraderie and support that are hardto duplicate in individual formats: Seeing how others suffer from lowself-esteem and witnessing their struggle to gain it can be helpful in manydifferent ways.