Self-Esteem Research, Theory, and Practice Toward a Positive ...

82 SELF-ESTEEM RESEARCH, THEORY, AND PRACTICEUnfortunately, there is no way to resolve this issue scientifically, so weonly deal with it if necessary. Nevertheless, a comprehensive approach tothe research, theory, and practice of self-esteem must make mention ofthis possibility, whether or not that is comfortable.Traits and States: Self-Esteem Types and LevelsAt one time in the field it was possible to divide self-esteem into threebasic levels or types: “high,” “low,” and on occasion, “medium.” Eachtype or level was characterized by a few basic characteristics, such as agood quality of life or the presence of anxiety or depression. Now weknow that much variation occurs even within these basic categories, sosimple classification is no longer possible. Let us compile what is saidabout low and high self-esteem to determine whether it can be organizedin a meaningful fashion. We will start with low self-esteem because itsheterogeneity is more straightforward than that of high self-esteem.Low Self-EsteemWe have already seen that low self-esteem is a diagnostic criterion orassociated characteristic of nearly two dozen mental disorders, but severalindividuals summarize the effect of low self-esteem in a way that capturesits lived qualities as well.Although the relationships are often weak, virtually every clinicallyrecognized variety of emotional and behavioral problem is morecommon among people with low than high self-esteem. Low selfesteemis associated with dysthymic disorder, major depression, anxietydisorder, eating disorders, sexual dysfunction, pathological shame,suicide attempts, and an array of personality disorders in both childrenand adults. (Leary & MacDonald, 2003, p. 412)And after studying self-esteem for over 3 decades, Rosenberg andOwens (2001) also identify the chief characteristics of low self-esteem,especially when compared with their high self-esteem counterparts.They include feelings such as hypersensitivity, instability, self-consciousness,lack of self-confidence, being more concerned with protectingagainst a threat than actualizing possibilities and enjoying life, lackof risk taking, general depression, pessimism, loneliness, alienation,and so forth.In addition, there are other situations that often, but not always,become a clinical problem involving self-esteem that do not carry a particulardiagnosis. One of them is the effect of trauma. Abuse during childhoodis worth spending some time with as an example of more severe