book1

These en� tlements are embedded in the poli� cal economy of a society,
framed by the ways of distribu� on of money and produc� ve resources
(Wa� s 2002; Wa� s/Bohle 1993a), and framed by dynamic formal and
informal laws (Leach et al. 1999), as well as by policies and interna� onal
agreements (Wa� s 2002).
Research on social vulnerability to food insecurity further embedded
the en� tlements approach into a longer-term historical perspec� ve, taking
into account the consequences of famine and the issue of recovery (Wa� s/
Bohle 1993b). Social vulnerability is a rela� onal concept that not only
a� empts explaining various factors and processes leading to the exposure
to food insecurity but also stresses the ways people cope with it in order to
maintain their livelihoods including food security (Bohle 2001). Vulnerability
has therefore always an external side of exposure, including various risks,
shocks, and stresses to which a person can be subjected; and an internal side
referring to people’s ability to cope with the situa� on (Chambers 1989: 1).
Those persons are most vulnerable, who are most exposed to perturba� ons
or stresses, who have the most circumscribed capability to cope with these
stresses, and a limited poten� al to recover a� er the occurrence of a crisis
(Wa� s/Bohle 1993a: 45).
People confronted with shocks o� en do not obtain the means to cope
in a way that would secure their resources, and therefore rely on so called
“devasta� ng coping strategies” (Maxwell et al. 2003). These include the
selling of assets such as produc� ve resources, ca� le or tools, or consump� on
of seeds, so that their poten� ality to recover from shocks does seriously
decline and their vulnerability increases.
This discussion suggests that food security, vulnerability, and
en� tlements are mainly qualita� ve issues. While quan� ta� ve data can
provide informa� on on household’s income, number of ca� le and size of
produc� ve resources such as landownership. The ques� on of access to food
is very much dependent on power rela� ons. Assessing the reasons behind
a certain endowment with resources requires a qualita� ve approach that
not only describes the current situa� on (as quan� ta� ve data do), but that
encounters the reasons for the diff eren� al distribu� on of assets and the
en� tlements. Access to food is not an absolute but a rela� ve issue, as the
case study below will demonstrate.
A way to reduce households’ or people’s vulnerability to food insecurity
would be to support their en� tlements by increasing/suppor� ng their
assets and endowments on which their en� tlements are based, or to secure
them from selling their assets in � mes of crisis. This is the idea of so called
“produc� ve safety-nets” which will be subject of the next sec� on.
Food Assistance and Social Safety Nets
Food assistance can be regarded as an alternate en� tlement for people
facing an en� tlement decline. It a� ains the role of an alterna� ve source of
food that helps recipients to retain their assets, which they otherwise would
have to sell in order to get food. As such it provides a safety net securing
140
Changing paradigms of aid eff ec� veness in Nepal