A HISTORY OF INNER ASIA

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104 A history of Inner Asia absent, and the geo-economic position of Inner Asia meant that some of it was long-distance trade passing through Mongolia.Manichaeism may have disappeared, but Christianity made some headway among such Turkic tribes as the Kereit, Merkit and Öngüt.The fact that it was the Nestorian denomination rather than, say, the Roman Catholic or even Orthodox or Jacobite ones was no accident: there had been a Nestorian bishopric in Merv, and Nestorianism too could spread from there along the special avenue that was the Silk Road network. Such was the situation until the second half of the twelfth century and the appearance of Temujin, the future Genghis Khan.The country was still more Turkic than Mongol, especially its central and western part, with the Tula and Orkhon rivers as the delimiters.East of there, along the Onon and Kerulen rivers all the way to the longitudinal Khingan mountains that separate Mongolia from Manchuria, lived tribes speaking Mongolian languages: the Tatars and those among whom we find some calling themselves Mongols.Both groups, along with many Turkic ones, are mentioned in Chinese sources as factors in the border politics of northern China; there, the Liao dynasty of the Khitan had succumbed to another invader from the northeast: the aforementioned Tungus Jürchen, who by 1125 had established their own Chinese dynasty, the Chin (“Golden”), with Beijing as the capital (or more exactly, a city whose successor began to be called Beijing, “Northern capital,” only after 1368 in the Ming period, in contrast to this dynasty’s southern capital, Nanjing). Temujin was born probably in 1167.After a youth of extreme hardship and struggle just to survive, he emerged as the leader of a growing coalition of clans and tribes – first Mongol, then increasingly also Turkic.By 1206 he was acclaimed at the quriltay, a diet of tribal leaders convened along the upper course of the Onon, as Genghis Khan, their undisputed ruler.The title “Genghis” is still a matter of debate among scholars, although most seem to agree that it probably had the connotation of “oceanic” and thus “world-embracing.” Almost at once Genghis Khan launched campaigns aimed at lands beyond Mongolia: northward into Kyrgyz and Oirat country on the upper Yenisei, southwestward against the Tangut kingdom of Hsi-Hsia, and southeastward against the Chin, the aforementioned Jürchen dynasty ruling northern China.The Hsi-Hsia kingdom, occupying the “Kansu corridor” and the Ordos region of China, was formed in 1038 by the Tanguts, a people of Tibeto-Burman extraction.It flourished especially in the twelfth century, partly thanks to the Silk Road trade that
The conquering Mongols 105 passed through its territory.Like the Uighur idiqut of Turfan, the Hsia king submitted (though more reluctantly) to Genghis Khan in 1209, but later the Hsi-Hsia court reneged on the promise and the kingdom paid for this mistake with its extinction in 1227. Despite occasional reverses, the Mongol chieftain was successful in all his undertakings.He displayed the flexibility and pragmatism characteristic also of some of his successors: a peaceful surrender or, better still, an anticipatory declaration of allegiance could enable a ruler to keep his throne and a population to escape a massacre; resistance almost invariably meant decimation or extermination.In 1209 the aforementioned Uighur idiqut of Turfan had the foresight to submit in time, and when summoned, to come in 1211 to pay homage to the incipient conqueror at his headquarters.By doing this he saved his kingdom, but also did the Mongols a favor whose value probably few realized at the time: for educated Uighurs entered Mongol service as bureaucrats and provided the rapidly growing empire with the kind of expertise that the initially illiterate nomads lacked. By 1215 Beijing had fallen to the Mongols.Instead of pursuing the retreating Chin, however, Genghis Khan turned his main attention westward, possibly stimulated by an embassy from the Kwarazmshah Ala al- Din Muhammad which he received soon after his sack of Beijing.The Khwarazmshah was proposing peaceful relations and commercial cooperation. Nevertheless, Genghis Khan’s hosts soon resumed the east–west trend of Inner Asian nomadic movements.There was an important difference here, however.Whereas other such phenomena – earlier as well as later – resulted from a variety of natural or human stimuli such as climatic vicissitudes or political infighting forcing the losing party to move elsewhere, Genghis Khan and his immediate successors – basically three generations – undertook their gigantic conquests only after careful and comprehensive preparations, by means of an organization that surpassed any other such undertaking, and with a universalist vision which some historians ascribe to an ideology claiming a mandate from Heaven to rule the world.The genius that three generations of Mongol leaders displayed in all these respects, and the dimensions of the empire which they created, is a unique historical phenomenon, and it alone may justify the subsequent charisma which descent from the House of Genghis Khan retained among the Turco-Mongols of Asia for centuries to come, even after the myriad scions themselves had lost any merit or real power. In Central Asia, as we have seen, a sudden expansion of Khwarazm
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A HISTORY OF INNER ASIA svat soucek
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Contents List of maps pagevii Prefa
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Maps 1 Inner Asia: principal politi
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Preface This book is an attempt to
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Preface xi Population: (approximate
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Preface xiii in the early Middle Ag
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2 A history of Inner Asia Mongolia,
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4 A history of Inner Asia An Histor
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16 A history of Inner Asia streams,
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18 A history of Inner Asia lasting
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20 A history of Inner Asia extermin
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22 A history of Inner Asia Kazakhst
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24 A history of Inner Asia in contr
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30 A history of Inner Asia is that
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34 A history of Inner Asia Moscow b
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36 A history of Inner Asia Ayatulla
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38 A history of Inner Asia (d.1166)
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40 A history of Inner Asia of the d
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42 A history of Inner Asia managed
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chapter one The beginnings To most
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48 A history of Inner Asia ways: a
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50 A history of Inner Asia armies o
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To the Arctic Ocean Kök Turkic Emp
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chapter twelve The rise of Russia,
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174 A history of Inner Asia Jahangi
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Horde of Bükey (nomadic Kazakhs) M
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184 A history of Inner Asia of Iran
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SIBERIAN RUSSIA R U S S I A Omsk Or
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212 A history of Inner Asia Central
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chapter eighteen Central Asia becom
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256 A history of Inner Asia power a
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260 A history of Inner Asia of 1917
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Sinkiang (Chinese Turkestan) RUSSIA
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Omsk Troitsk RUSSIAN FEDERATION RUS
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UZBEKISTAN KYRGYZSTAN Syr Darya Riv
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Uzbekistan Syr Darya Aral Sea (Kaza
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282 A history of Inner Asia for ass
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284 A history of Inner Asia growing
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290 A history of Inner Asia border
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292 A history of Inner Asia Coopera
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Amur Railroad Moscow-Beijing via Ul
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314 A history of Inner Asia Sinkian
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Appendix 1 dynastic tables This sec
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318 Appendix 1 13.Hasan (1130-32),
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320 Appendix 1 (d) Anushtiginids, o
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322 Appendix 1 21.Qazan (1343-46),
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324 Appendix 1 Timurid (non-Genghis
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326 Appendix 1 x.Yar Muhammad 1.Jan
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328 Appendix 1 25.Abu l-Ghazi III (
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330 Appendix 1 7a.Qilich Burhan al-
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332 Appendix 2 Kazakh Muslims were
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334 Appendix 2 Currency: The som; i
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336 Appendix 2 Religion: Historical
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338 Appendix 2 Sinkiang (Sinkiang U
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340 Appendix 2 Dundgov (Mandalgov);
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342 Select bibliography Barthold, W
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344 Select bibliography Aitmatov, C
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346 Select bibliography Bennigsen,
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348 Select bibliography Language Pl
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350 Select bibliography Istoriya Ka
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352 Select bibliography Mackenzie,
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354 Select bibliography Semenov, A.
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356 Select bibliography Bayhaqi, Ab
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358 Select bibliography Arends (Mos
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Abbasids, second dynasty of caliphs
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362 Index constitution, Soviet, 283
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364 Index Kaufman, Konstantin Petro
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366 Index Pamir Boundary Commission
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368 Index Togan, Zeki Velidi, Bashk
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A HISTORY OF INNER ASIA

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