A HISTORY OF INNER ASIA

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286 A history of Inner Asia that the city recovered its Kazakh name.On 9 June 1998 the Fifth Turkic Summit was held there, and the next day, 10 June, was marked by a celebration inaugurating Astana as the new capital of Kazakhstan – for that is the new and presumably final name of this city.“Astana” simply means “capital city” in Kazakh and one must thus conclude that it has become the republic’s city par excellence. Nevertheless, the leading theme in relations between Central Asia and Russia is cooperation, not confrontation.This includes a whole gamut of economic and professional aspects, but two deserve to be singled out. One is the location of the former Soviet, and now Russian, missilelaunching ground and space program center at Baikonur in Kazakhstan.Baikonur, situated in west-central Kazakhstan, was chosen in the Soviet era for strategic, logistical and climatic reasons, and it has retained most of these aspects to this day.Its continued use, against an initial payment of $1 billion and a lease fee of $115 million annually (both to be deducted from Kazakhstan’s debt to Russia), is likely to be an asset or a liability – or both – for Kazakhstan. The other aspect is defense.Before independence, the republics’ military, from raw recruits to generals, were integrated in the Red Army. Now all five are striving to create their own armed forces, but it is a laborious and costly process, so that reliance on those of the CIS or of Russia has proved unavoidable.Our definition is deliberately vague or confusing, because the situation itself is fluid and incompletely reported.Thus when Islamic fundamentalists, drawing on help from the mujahideen of Afghanistan, seemed able to prevail in Tajikistan during 1992, it was the CIS troops commanded by General Piankov who saved the situation, to the great relief not only of the fundamentalists’ Tajik opponents but also of Tajikistan’s Uzbek and Turkmen neighbors and even of the other Central Asians, the Kyrgyz and Kazakhs; the CIS troops continue to guard the Tajik–Afghan border, thus in fact the Central Asian–Afghan border.A more recent agreement in 1993 between the Turkmen and Russian governments garrisons Turkmenistan’s strategic points along the Afghan and Iranian borders with Russian armed forces, and entrusts the training of the Turkmen ones to Russian officers.We witness here one of history’s paradoxical but not infrequent paraphrases of itself: the Tsarist empire’s Turkestan was once guarded by Russian troops along these frontiers against a perceived threat from the British empire, with an undercurrent of a wish to push toward the Indian Ocean; this undercurrent resurfaced, or was perceived to do so, with the recent Soviet
Independent Central Asian Republics 287 invasion of Afghanistan; today, Russia’s troops guard the same frontier but within an entirely different and unexpected context. The newly established international profile of the Central Asian republics is forcefully reflected in their relations with the United States. Diplomatic representation is only one part of the multifaceted and lively contacts; American business, academe, and foundations pursue the newly found opportunities for self-interest, research, and altruistic help abounding in this part of the world that was previously all but inaccessible to them.Moreover, the presence of the United Nations Organization in New York adds a further and unique dimension to Central Asian–American relations. One of the riches of Central Asia is mineral wealth, and American companies have entered the competitive arena of developing its exploitation.The oil of Kazakhstan and natural gas of Turkmenistan lead this roster.The Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbaev signed in March 1993, during one of his visits to Washington, a contract with the Chevron Oil Company to develop the oilfields of Tengiz in the Caspian confines of western Kazakhstan; James Baker, the former Secretary of State in the Bush administration, was one of the business leaders who at about the same time went to Turkmenistan to negotiate contracts with Saparmurad Niyazov, that republic’s President, aiming at developing the especially rich gas deposits of Nebit Dag.While both Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan (and, across the Caspian, Azerbaijan) have already benefited from their deposits of oil and natural gas, it is no more than a preview of the expected boom.For reasons of both technology and policy, only their surface, literally and figuratively, had been “scratched” in the Tsarist and Soviet periods.The technology of their exploitation lagged far behind that applied by the industrial West; and Moscow preferred to give priority to developing deposits in territories more safely under its control, primarily those of the Russian Federation.On the other hand, the promising potential of the Caspian basin suffers from a serious drawback: the lack of direct access to adequate ports from which to export oil and natural gas to Europe, America, or Japan.In order to do so, construction of long and costly pipelines will be necessary, but still more problematic may be the fact that these conduits will have to pass through other countries and thus remain at the mercy of their governments’ whims and demands (and even of world powers across the oceans). A plan to build a pipeline through Turkmenistan to a Mediterranean
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A HISTORY OF INNER ASIA svat soucek
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Contents List of maps pagevii Prefa
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Maps 1 Inner Asia: principal politi
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Preface This book is an attempt to
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Preface xi Population: (approximate
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Preface xiii in the early Middle Ag
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2 A history of Inner Asia Mongolia,
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4 A history of Inner Asia An Histor
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6 A history of Inner Asia cognate o
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8 A history of Inner Asia trophic d
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10 A history of Inner Asia Emirate
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12 A history of Inner Asia If we le
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14 A history of Inner Asia hencefor
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16 A history of Inner Asia streams,
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18 A history of Inner Asia lasting
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20 A history of Inner Asia extermin
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22 A history of Inner Asia Kazakhst
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24 A history of Inner Asia in contr
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26 A history of Inner Asia to be ca
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28 A history of Inner Asia the Dash
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30 A history of Inner Asia is that
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32 A history of Inner Asia three Mi
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34 A history of Inner Asia Moscow b
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36 A history of Inner Asia Ayatulla
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38 A history of Inner Asia (d.1166)
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40 A history of Inner Asia of the d
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42 A history of Inner Asia managed
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44 A history of Inner Asia among th
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chapter one The beginnings To most
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48 A history of Inner Asia ways: a
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50 A history of Inner Asia armies o
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To the Arctic Ocean Kök Turkic Emp
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54 A history of Inner Asia of these
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56 A history of Inner Asia that eve
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58 A history of Inner Asia Khurasan
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60 A history of Inner Asia man amon
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62 A history of Inner Asia would ha
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64 A history of Inner Asia appointi
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66 A history of Inner Asia movement
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68 A history of Inner Asia for almo
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chapter three The Samanids The Arab
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72 A history of Inner Asia Turkic g
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74 A history of Inner Asia the Saha
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76 A history of Inner Asia Ilig (al
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78 A history of Inner Asia at the e
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80 A history of Inner Asia factor h
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82 A history of Inner Asia for that
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84 A history of Inner Asia confeder
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86 A history of Inner Asia tioned F
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88 A history of Inner Asia between
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90 A history of Inner Asia that the
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92 A history of Inner Asia Signific
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94 A history of Inner Asia they see
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96 A history of Inner Asia campaign
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98 A history of Inner Asia for an e
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100 A history of Inner Asia assets,
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Moscow Russian Principalities GOLDE
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104 A history of Inner Asia absent,
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106 A history of Inner Asia elimina
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108 A history of Inner Asia end to
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110 A history of Inner Asia members
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112 A history of Inner Asia in the
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114 A history of Inner Asia unprece
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116 A history of Inner Asia Some tw
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118 A history of Inner Asia madrasa
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120 A history of Inner Asia a still
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122 A history of Inner Asia Chaghat
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Moscow 1395 Tamerlane's campaigns,
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126 A history of Inner Asia of Tran
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128 A history of Inner Asia Ulugh B
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130 A history of Inner Asia an unde
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132 A history of Inner Asia the wor
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134 A history of Inner Asia known b
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136 A history of Inner Asia almost
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138 A history of Inner Asia Sammasi
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140 A history of Inner Asia The abo
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142 A history of Inner Asia formal
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chapter ten The last Timurids and t
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146 A history of Inner Asia usually
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148 A history of Inner Asia of anot
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150 A history of Inner Asia they wo
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152 A history of Inner Asia leader,
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154 A history of Inner Asia imate t
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156 A history of Inner Asia between
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158 A history of Inner Asia 1580 Kh
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160 A history of Inner Asia 1380s.O
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chapter twelve The rise of Russia,
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164 A history of Inner Asia the lat
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166 A history of Inner Asia religio
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168 A history of Inner Asia however
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170 A history of Inner Asia The pro
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172 A history of Inner Asia place.I
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174 A history of Inner Asia Jahangi
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Horde of Bükey (nomadic Kazakhs) M
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178 A history of Inner Asia Bukhara
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180 A history of Inner Asia Shah’
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182 A history of Inner Asia by then
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184 A history of Inner Asia of Iran
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186 A history of Inner Asia For 372
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188 A history of Inner Asia the wes
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190 A history of Inner Asia Khoqand
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192 A history of Inner Asia the fai
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SIBERIAN RUSSIA R U S S I A Omsk Or
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196 A history of Inner Asia prestig
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198 A history of Inner Asia about R
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200 A history of Inner Asia We may
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202 A history of Inner Asia One fin
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204 A history of Inner Asia extent
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206 A history of Inner Asia modern
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208 A history of Inner Asia in whic
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210 A history of Inner Asia newspap
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212 A history of Inner Asia Central
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214 A history of Inner Asia and mil
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216 A history of Inner Asia Republi
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218 A history of Inner Asia began t
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220 A history of Inner Asia Communi
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222 A history of Inner Asia their s
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224 A history of Inner Asia An esse
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226 A history of Inner Asia besides
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228 A history of Inner Asia adoptio
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230 A history of Inner Asia it.It i
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232 A history of Inner Asia of the
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234 A history of Inner Asia had led
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Page 292 and 293: Omsk Troitsk RUSSIAN FEDERATION RUS
Page 294 and 295: UZBEKISTAN KYRGYZSTAN Syr Darya Riv
Page 296 and 297: Uzbekistan Syr Darya Aral Sea (Kaza
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Page 332 and 333: Appendix 1 dynastic tables This sec
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Page 346 and 347: 330 Appendix 1 7a.Qilich Burhan al-
Page 348 and 349: 332 Appendix 2 Kazakh Muslims were
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336 Appendix 2 Religion: Historical
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338 Appendix 2 Sinkiang (Sinkiang U
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340 Appendix 2 Dundgov (Mandalgov);
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342 Select bibliography Barthold, W
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344 Select bibliography Aitmatov, C
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346 Select bibliography Bennigsen,
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348 Select bibliography Language Pl
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350 Select bibliography Istoriya Ka
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352 Select bibliography Mackenzie,
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354 Select bibliography Semenov, A.
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356 Select bibliography Bayhaqi, Ab
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358 Select bibliography Arends (Mos
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Abbasids, second dynasty of caliphs
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362 Index constitution, Soviet, 283
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364 Index Kaufman, Konstantin Petro
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366 Index Pamir Boundary Commission
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368 Index Togan, Zeki Velidi, Bashk
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A HISTORY OF INNER ASIA

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